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lb55        Bachman   - 
Principles 


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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  dale  stamped  below 

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\ 2  2  rtECO 


i 


I?* 


PRINCIPLES    OF 

ELEMENTARY     EDUCATION 

AND    THEIR   APPLICATION 


BY 

FRANK   P.   BACHMAN,   Ph.D. 

SOMETIME    ASSISTANT   SUPERINTENDENT    CLEVELAND    PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

MEMBER  OF  NEW  YORK  SCHOOL  INQUIRY,  AUTHOR  OF  "  PROBLEMS 

IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION,"  ETC. 


D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


53774 


Copyright,  1915, 
By  D.  C,   Heath  &  Co. 


L6 


PREFACE 

This  book  seeks,  first,  to  set  forth  the  principles  of  elementary 
education,  and  second,  to  apply  these  to  the  work  of  the 
elementary  school. 

To  estabhsh  the  principles  of  elementary  education,  and  to 

bring  to  view  what  is  implied  in  them,  a  study  is  made  in  Part 

■N  I  of  the  relation  between  the  individual  and  society,  also  of  the 

^  nature  of  the  mental  life  of  the  child,  of  how  the  child  develops, 

■>  and  of  how  he  learns. 

Part  II  seeks  to  determine,  in  the  light  of  the  principles  de- 
veloped, the  aim  of  elementary  education,  the  curriculum  of 
4     the  elementary  school,  the  methods  of  elementary  instruction, 
>,    and  the  organization  of  the  elementary  school. 

The  eflfort  made  to  establish  the  principles  of  elementary 
education,  the  conception  held  of  the  inter-relation  between  the 
individual  and  society,  the  theory  of  human  nature  and  of 
human  development  set  forth,  the  social  or  national  aim  of 
education  advanced,  the  analysis  of  the  learning  processes,  and 
/sT  the  methods  of  instruction  presented  are  among  the  distinctive 
features  of  this  book. 

The  materials  offered  are  sufficient  for  a  three-hour  course 
during  two  terms  or  a  five-hour  course  for  one  term.  The 
book  may  be  used  in  two  ways.  First  and  preferably,  it  may 
be  followed  chapter  by  chapter.  Second,  where  students  pur- 
pose to  give  only  a  short  period  to  preparation  and  desire  to 
concentrate  more  particularly  upon  class  teaching,  a  course  in 
the  Principles  and  Methods  of  Elementary  Instruction  may  be 
given  by  taking  Sec.  4  of  Chapter  IV,  and  Chapters  V,  VTII, 
andrX. 


^ 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Relation  of  the  Individual  to  Society 

PAGE 

1.  The  Problem 3 

2.  Society  and  Its  Characteristics 3 

3.  The  Problem  Restated 5 

4.  The  Individual  and  the  Existence  of  Society 5 

5.  The  Individual  and  the  Development  of  Society 11 

6.  The  Individual  and  the  Aim  of  Society 18 

7.  Conclusions 22 

CHAPTER  n 
The  Relation  of  Society  to  the  Individual 

1.  The  Individual  and  his  Characteristics 23 

2.  The  Problem  Restated 25 

3.  Society  and  the  Existence  of  the  Individual 25 

4.  Society  and  the  Pevelopment  of  the  Individual 32 

5.  Society  and  the  .Vim  of  the  Individual 40 

6.  The  Reciprocal  Relation  Between  Society  and  the  Individual  48 

7.  Educational  Inferences 49 

8.  Educational  Principles 50 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Nature  of  the  Psychical  Life  of  the  Child 

1.  The  Problem 52 

2.  The  Aspects  of  Psychical  Life 52 


vi  CONTENTS 

. .     .  PAGE 

3.  The  Will 54 

4.  The  Intellect ^ 75 

5.  Knowledge '•    ....    •      85 

6.  Educational  Inferences  ....  ^   ...........   .  89 

7.  Educational  Principles 90 


CHAPTER  IV 
;The  Psychical  Development  or  the  Child 

;,  I.  The  Problem 92 

'■  2.  The  Factors  that  Develop 92 

3.  The  Periods  in  Psychical  Development 93 

4.  The  Process:  The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge 96 

5.  The  Process:   The  Acquisition  and  Use  of  Knowledge  and 

WiU  Development 116 

6.  The  Process:   The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge  and  the  De- 

velopment of  the  Intellect 123 

7.  The  Process:  Will  and  Intellectual  Development 130 

8.  Unity  in  Process  of  Psychical  Development 131 

9.  The  Process  of  Psychical  Development .  .   .   .   .  ,.   .    .   .   .  131 

10.  Educational  Inferences 132 

11.  Educational  Principles 133 

CHAPTER  V 
The  Learning  Processes 

1.  The  Problem 135 

2.  The  Inductive  Perceptual  Process  of  Learning 135 

3.  The  Inductive  Conceptual  Process  of  Learning .   ......  140 

4.  The  Deductive  Perceptual  Process  of  Learning 144 

5.  The  Deductive  Conceptual  Process  of  Learning 149 

6.  The  Learning  Processes  Abridged  and  Unabridged 155 

7.  Range  and  Period  of  Operation 155 

8.  Educational  Principles 156 


CONTENTS  .  vdi 

PART  II 
APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES 

CHAPTER  VI 

The  Meaning  and  Aim  of  Elementary  Education 

PAGE 

1.  The  Problem 162 

2.  The  Meaning  of  Education 162 

3.  The  Aim  of  Education 168 

4.  The  Aim  of  Elementary  Education 176 

CHAPTER  VII 

The  Curriculum  of  the  Elementary  ^School 

1.  The  Problem 182 

2.  The  Materials  of  the  Curriculum 182 

3.  Factors  Determining  the  Curriculum 183 

4.  Determination  of  Elementary  School  Curriculum  by  Society .  183 

5.  Determination  of  Elementary  School  Curriculum  by  the  Child  199 

6.  Determination  of  Elementary  School  Curriculum  by  Society 

Versus  its  Determination  by  the  Child 205 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Methods  of  Elementary  School  Instruction 

1.  The  Problem 209 

2.  The  liiJuctive  Perceptual  Method  of  Instruction 209 

3.  The  Inductive  Conceptual  Method  of  Instruction 219 

4.  The  Deductive  Perceptual  Method  of  Instruction 228 

5.  The  Deductive  Conceptual  Method  of  Instruction 232 

6.  Methods  of  Instruction  Abridged  and  Unabridged 238 

CHAPTER  IX 
The  Lesson  Plan  and  Illustrative  Plans 

1.  The  Problem 240 

2.  The  Lesson  Plan 240 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

3.  Illustrative  Inductive  Perceptual  Lesson  Plans 244 

4.,  Illustrative  Deductive  Perceptual  Lesson  Plans 256 

5.  Illustrative  Inductive  Conceptual  Lesson  Plans 262 

6.  Illustrative  Deductive  Conceptual  Lesson  Plans 275 

7.  Lesson  Plans  Abridged  and  Unabridged 282 

CHAPTER  X 
The  Organization  of  the  Elementary  School 

1.  The  Problem 285 

2.  Factors  Conditioning  the  Organization  of  the  Elementary 

School 285 

3.  The  Child  as  a  Factor 286 

4.  Instruction  as  a  Factor 288 

5.  Society  as  a  Factor 289 

Index      297 


PART   I 
PRINCIPLES   OF   ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


THE  PRINCIPLES     OF 
ELEMENTARY    EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 
THE   RELATION    OF   THE   INDIVIDUAL   TO    SOCIETY 

§  I.  The  Problem 

The  majority  of  books  on  education  treat  the  subject 
as  if  the  school  had  to  do  only  with  what  is  needed  to  secure 
the  development  and  highest  life  of  the  individual.  We 
have,  however,  come  to  see  that  the  school  has  to  do  also 
with  the  interests  and  purposes  of  society.  The  recogni- 
tion that  the  school  has  to  do  with  society  as  well  as  the 
individual  has  introduced  into  the  study  of  education 
two  questions:  (i)  What  is  the  relation  of  the  individual 
to  society,  and  (2)  What  is  the  relation  of  society  to  the 
individual?  -j 

To  consider  these  relationships  and  to  formulate  the 
insights  gained  through  these  studies,  becomes  our  first 
task.  It  is  with  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society 
that  we  begin. 

§  2.   Society  and  its  Characteristics 

A  human  society  is  a  group  of  people  dwelling  together, 
who  have  a  common  country,  common  institutions,  com- 
mon ideals  and  purposes,  such  as  the  English,  the  French, 
the  Germans,  or  the  people  of  the  United  States. 


4  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

It  is  not  merely  the  fact  of  a  people  living  together 
that  makes  a  society.  It  is  rather  their  dwelling  together 
in  psychical  relations.  By  psychical  relations  is  meant 
the  appreciation,  on  the  part  of  each  member  of  the  group, 
of  emotional  bonds  binding  him  to  the  whole,  the  recog- 
nition by  each  individual  that  his  conduct  must  conform 
to  given  standards  of  action,  the  recognition  that  each 
member  of  the  group  has  duties  with  reference  to  him  and 
that  he  is  under  corresponding  obligations  to  them.  It 
is  the  appreciation,  on  the  part  of  its  members,  of  such 
psychical  relations  that  is  distinctive  of  society.  For  this 
reason,  a  human  society  is  regarded  as  a  psychical  organ- 
ization. That  is,  it  is  an  organization  in  which  the  bonds 
holding  its  members  together  are_  emotional  and  mental, 
and  not  chemical  as  with  water,  nor  mechanical  as  in  the 
case  of  a  pile  of  bricks. 

As  a  psychical  organization,  society  is  not  static.  The 
relations  between  men  within  it  undergo  change.  Im- 
provements occur  in  standards  of  conduct,  in  what  is 
regarded  as  the  citizen's  duties  to  his  fellows  and  to  the 
social  whole.  Puritan  ideas  of  conduct  and  duty,  for 
example,  are  not  the  ideas  of  the  present.  The  form  of 
society  may  also  change.  In  one  age,  a  given  society 
may  be  an  oligarchy,  in  another  it  may  be  a  monarchy, 
while  in  still  another,  it  may  be  a  democracy.  France 
is  illustrative.  Society  is  thus  a  living  thing,  subject  to 
change  and  development. 

Again,  an  organization  has  an  end  or  purpose.  That 
of  certain  organizations,  like  charity  associations,  is  found 
apart  from  any  direct  benefits  the  members  may  derive. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  purpose  of  an  organization,  for 
example  a  labor  union,  or  trust,  or  fraternal  order,  is  to 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND   SOCIETY  5 

further  the  interests  of  its  members.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  society;  it  not  only  has  an  aim,  but  its  aim  is  to 
be  found  in  the  life  and  welfare  of  its  members. 

§  3.  The  Problem  Restated 

If  it  is  accepted  that  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 
a  human  society  are  that  it  is  a  psychical  organization, 
that  it  is  capable  of  growth  and  development,  and  that 
it  finds  its  aim  in  the  welfare  of  its  members,  it  ought  to 
be  clear  that  genuine  appreciation  of  the  relation  of  the 
individual  to  society  must  rest  upon  insight  into  his  rela- 
tion to  these  characteristics.  For  this  reason,  we  are  able 
to  limit  our  problem  and  to  resolve  it  into  a  study  of  the 
relation  of  the  individual  to  the  existence  of  society  as  a 
psychical  organization,  into  a  study  of  his  relation  to  its 
development  and  to  its  end  or  aim. 

§  4.  The  Individual  and  the  Existence  of  Society 

1 .  The  Distinguishing  Mark  of  Man.  —  Many  efforts 
have  been  made  to  point  out  what  quality  distinguishes 
man  from  other  creatures.  Some  hold  this  mark  to  be 
the  upright  position  of  his  body;  others,  that  it  is  his  free 
hands;  others,  that  it  is  language;  and  the  hst  might  be 
lengthened  to  include  laughter,  sympathy,  choice,  and 
voUtion.  Whatever  arguments  there  may  be  in  favor 
of  one  or  the  other  of  these  characteristics,  there  is  a 
growing  opinion  that  the  quahty  which  distinguishes  man 
more  than  any  other  is  the  higher  powers  of  his  intellect. 

2.  Higher  Powers  of  the  Uuman  Intellect.  —  Certain 
of  the  higher  powers  of  the  human  intellect  are  of  impor- 
tance in  this  connection. 


6         PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

The  first  of  these  is  self-consciousness.  By  self-con- 
sciousness is  meant  the  consciousness  of  one's  bodily  states, 
feelings,  thoughts,  and  actions  as  one's  own,  and  the 
idea  of  one's  self  as  a  self  that  existed  yesterday,  exists 
today,  and  will  exist  tomorrow. 

A  second  is  the  capacity  to  learn  by  ideas.  Learning 
by  ideas  in  the  fullest  sense  implies  sensation,  perception, 
memory,  imagination,  and  in  particular  the  mental  func- 
tions of  comparison,  abstraction,  and  generalization. 
Endowed  with  the  capacity  to  learn  by  ideas,  the  individ- 
ual is  able  to  acquire  knowledge  of  himself  and  of  the 
external  world,  and  able  so  to  direct  his  actions  in  the 
light  of  the  knowledge  gained  as  to  satisfy  his  needs. 
Through  this  capacity,  he  is  also  able  to  imagine  possible 
experiences,  to  reflect  upon  them,  and  to  pass  judgment 
upon  their  desirability;  in  a  word,  he  is  able  to  conceive 
and  project  ends  and  to  devise  means  of  attaining  them. 

3.  Higher  Powers  of  the  Human  Intellect  and  Society.  — 
It  is  the  human  intellect  with  its  higher  powers  that  makes 
more  than  the  simplest  forms  of  social  Hfe  possible.  It  does 
this  in  that  it  supplies,  first,  the  needed  emotional  bond. 
Man  is  endowed  with  sympathy,  sociality,  and  an  in- 
stinctive sense  of  justice.  These  instinctive  tendencies 
are  of  themselves  strong  enough  to  supply  the  emotional 
bond  required  by  a  social  order  even  higher  than  that  of 
bees,  beavers,  and  other  animals.  Though  native  sym- 
pathy leads  the  individual  to  give  aid  to  his  family  and  to 
the  members  of  his  group,  it  does  not  keep  him  from  being 
uninterested  in  those  not  known  to  him.  Likewise  with 
the  social  instinct,  it  inclines  the  individual  to  live  in 
peace  with  the  members  of  his  clan  and  even  with  the 
members  of  his  tribe,  but  it  does  not  deter  him  from  in- 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  7 

flicting  outrages  upon  those  not  bound  to  him  by  ties  of 
blood  or  fellowship.  Similarly  with  the  instinctive  sense 
of  justice,  it  leads  the  individual  to  a  semblance  of  justice 
so  long  as  he  is  dealing  with  his  family,  clan,  or  with  his 
equals,  but  this  native  sense  of  obligation  does  not  extend 
beyond  his  social  group  or  to  those  different  in  race  or 
station. 

Something  more  than  instinctive  sympathy,  sociality, 
and  sense  of  justice  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a  society 
such  as  that  of  the  American  people.  There  is  need  of 
a  sympathy  extending  to  the  farthermost  member  of  the 
social  whole,  however  unrelated  he  may  be  by  family  or 
racial  ties.  Witness  the  sympathy  extended  to  the  victims 
of  the  earthquake  in  Italy  and  to  the  sufferers  in  the 
European  war.  There  is  need  of  a  sociality  that  inclines 
the  individual  to  live  at  peace  with  his  fellows  and  disposes 
him  to  cooperate  with  other  members  of  the  nation  for 
the  attainment  of  social  ends.  The  presence  of  this  feeling 
is  evidenced  in  our  social  order  by  the  peacefulness  of 
private  life  and  by  the  ready  response  to  public  call  in 
times  of  social  want.  There  is  need  also  of  a  sense  of  jus- 
tice so  keen  that  the  individual  feels  *'a  man's  a  man  for 
a'  that,"  and  in  duty  bound  to  treat  him  justly  notwith- 
standing race,  color,  or  station. 

t  It  is  only  as  native  sympathy,  sociality,  and  sense  of 
justice  are  acted  upon  by  the  higher  powers  of  the  intellect 
that  they  are  broadened  and  deepened.  For  example, 
sympathy,  which  extends  naturally  to  those  of  one's 
immediate  group  only,  may  be  broadened  imder  the 
influence  of  intelligence  to  include  the  members  of  the 
community  and  of  the  nation,  and  it  may  even  be  so  broad- 
ened as  to  extend  to  man  wherever  he  may  dwell.    Similarly 


8  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

with  instinctive  sociality  and  justice.  It  is  in  thus  acting 
upon  these  social  instincts  and  in  giving  them  the  needed 
breadth  and  depth  that  the  intellect  supplies  the  emo- 
tional bond  necessary  to  the  existence  of  other  than  the 
lower  orders  of  social  life. 

Second,  social  Hfe  among  men  also  implies  an  intellec- 
tual bond.  Among  primitive  peoples,  this  is  furnished  by 
their  idea  of  relationship.  Only  those  persons  are  included 
within  the  tribe  who  are  joined  by  ties  of  blood  or  adoption. 
Even  when  tribes  were  federated,  as  among  the  early 
Greeks  or  the  American  Indians,  the  bond  of  union  was  an 
imaginary  relationship  to  a  common  ancestor.  Among 
civilized  people,  however,  ties  of  real  or  imaginary  re- 
lationship are  ignored  as  well  as  those  of  racial  differences, 
and  the  bond  of  social  union  becomes  one  of  principles  and 
of  ideals.  The  principles  and  ideals  serving  as  the  bond 
of  union  for  the  American  Colonies  in  1776  were  set  forth 
in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  and  embodied  later 
in  the  Constitution,  the  preamble  of  which  runs:  "We, 
the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
quillity, provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote  the 
general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  Hberty  to  our- 
selves and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this 
Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America."  Similar 
declarations  are  to  be  found  in  the  constitutions  of  modern 
nations. 

Not  only  does  social  life  among  men  presuppose  an 
intellectual  bond,  but  also  an  intellectual  basis.  To  be 
sure,  no  great  amount  of  knowledge  is  needed  if  Hfe  is  as 
simple  as  among  the  Eskimos,  but  an  immense  amount 
is  needed  in  a  social  order  like  our  own.    That  the  Ameri- 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  9 

can  people  may  be  supplied  \vith  food  and  shelter,  a  world 
of  knowledge  is  put  to  use  in  carrying  on  farming,  garden- 
ing, stock-raising,  lumbering,  mining,  manufacturing,  and 
in  the  transportation  and  distribution  of  the  finished 
product.  A  further  world  of  knowledge  is  implied  in 
the  existence  and  continuance  of  such  institutions  as  the 
family,  social  intercourse,  the  school,  the  state,  and  the 
church.  On  the  other  hand,  consider  the  knowledge  one 
must  possess  to  wind  his  way  safely  in  and  out  of  a  crowded 
city,  think  of  what  one  must  have  of  customs  and  man- 
ners —  to  say  nothing  of  ideals  —  to  be  able  to  live  har- 
moniously with  his  fellows,  of  what  one  must  know  of 
the  traditions  and  of  the  laws  of  the  community,  state, 
and  nation  to  be  a  law-abiding  and  upright  citizen.  It 
is  not  necessary,  of  course,  that  any  one  individual  possess 
all  the  learning  implied  in  carrying  on  our  social  machinery 
and  in  pursuing  all  the  lines  of  activity  to  be  found  in  our 
social  order,  but  it  is  necessary  that  each  know  some 
things  and  that  this  collective  knowledge  be  had. 

The  principles  and  ideals  supplying  the  bond  of  social 
life  and  the  knowledge  serving  as  its  basis  are  not  gifts  of 
heredity  to  the  members  of  society;  these  ideals  and  this 
knowledge  are  gained  by  them  through  the  exercise  of  the 
higher  powers  of  the  intellect.  It  is  in  thus  enabling 
individuals  to  acquire  the  needed  insights  and  information 
that  the  human  intellect  makes  possible  the  existence  of 
society. 

Third,  the  intellect  supplies  the  motive  for  social  life. 
The  individual  is  able,  as  we  have  seen,  to  form  ideals 
and  to  plan  ways  of  reaching  these.  Were  his  intelligence 
limited  so  that  he  could  only  grasp  ends  which  he  himself 
might  reach,  there  would  then  be  no  incentives  for  social  life 


lo        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

other  than  those  coming  from  instinct.  But  man  is  able 
to  comprehend  and  appreciate  ends  which  of  himself  he 
is  unable  to  achieve,  and  to  attain  these  he  is  compelled 
to  seek  the  aid  of  others.  It  is  ideas  of  this  type  that  give 
rise  to  motives  that  move  the  individual  to  cooperate 
and  to  join  in  social  undertakings.  The  average  man, 
for  example,  is  slow  to  take  part  in  social  enterprises  until 
he  can  see  that  they  will  in  some  way  be  to  his  advantage. 
The  motives  leading  the  Colonists  to  revolt  from  England 
and  to  establish  a  new  social  order  sprang  from  the  con- 
viction that  they  could  thereby  better  their  own  condition 
and  that  of  posterity.  Thus  the  intellect,  by  enabling 
the  individual  to  conceive  of  ends  which  he  cannot  by 
himself  attain,  becomes  the  primary  source  of  motives 
leading  men  to  forms  of  social  life.    -— •'•*°^"'-' 

4.  The  Individual  and  the  Existence  of  Society.  —  From 
this  point  of  view  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the 
existence  of  society  becomes  clear.  Society  as  a  psychical 
organization  impHes  the  presence  of  certain  emotional 
and  intellectual  conditions.  These  are  furnished  by  the 
higher  powers  of  the  human  intellect.  The  higher  powers 
of  the  intellect  are  possessed  only  by  human  individuals. 
Consequently,  apart  from  human  individuals  the  breadth 
of  sympathy,  of  sociality,  and  of  the  sense  of  justice,  the 
insight  into  principles  and  ideals,  the  knowledge  of  means, 
and  the  motives  for  cooperation  —  all  requisite  to  social 
life  —  are  not  present  and  society  cannot  exist. 

To  be  sure,  the  existence  of  no  society,  say  our  own,  is 
dependent  upon  the  emotions  and  the  intelligence  of  any 
one  individual,  but  that  a  given  society  may  be  and  con- 
tinue, certain  emotions  and  a  certain  degree  of  intelli- 
gence are  necessary  on  the  part  of  a  majority,  if  not  of  all, 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  ii 

of  its  members.  Let  a  majority  of  the  members  of  a  social 
order  sink  in  their  emotional  life  and  in  intelligence  below 
what  is  necessary  to  appreciate  and  understand  the  under- 
lying principles  and  ideals,  the  institutions,  and  the  cus- 
toms of  that  order,  and  the  given  society  will  sooner  or 
later  cease  to  be.  Hence  it  is  the  individual,  by  reason  of 
his  emotions  and  intelligence,  that  couditions  the  existence 
and  the  continuation  of  society. 

§  5.  The  Individual  and  the  Development  of 
Society 

1 .  Meatiing  of  Social  Developuient.  —  We  mean  by 
social  development  any  addition  to  the  materials  or  means 
of  social  life  or  any  improvement  in  the  machinery  of  the 
social  order  that  gives  man  greater  dominion  over  nature, 
greater  dominion  over  himself,  and  secures  to  him  a  freer, 
fuller,  and  richer  hfe. 

2.  Factors  in  Social  Development.  —  Apart  from  the 
individual,  there  are  involved  in  social  development  two 
kinds  of  factors,  namely,  natural  elements — -such  as  mineral 
resources,  flora,  fauna,  etc. — ^and  artificial  factors.  In  our 
present  study  we  shall  pass  over  the  natural  factors  and 
confine  our  attention  to  the  artificial.  This  is  not  because 
the  former  are  unimportant,  but  because  the  latter  in 
connection  with  the  individual  are  the  determining  element 
and  the  key  to  an  appreciation  of  social  progress. 

The  artificial  factors  of  social  development  arc  natural 
science,  social  science,  literature,  art,  and  religion.  That 
these  are  factors  in  social  progress  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  where  they  are  found  in  their  fullness  and  rich- 
ness, there  is  civilization  with  its  blessings,  but  where  they 


12        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

are  found  only  in  their  beginnings,  there  stalks  savagery. 
The  reason  is  obvious;  natural  science  Ues  at  the  basis 
of  improvement  in  the  production  and  transportation  of 
material  and  mechanical  things,  as  well  as  at  the  basis 
of  sanitation  and  protection  from  disease.  The  social 
sciences  are  the  foundation  of  changes  for  the  better  in 
the  social  order;  literature  is  an  element  in  communica- 
tion, in  preserving  and  imparting  knowledge,  and  in  the 
elevation  of  thought,  while  art  and  religion  are  factors  in 
giving  pleasure  and  in  inspiring  to  nobler  Hving. 

The  terms  employed  to  designate  these  artificial  factors 
are  not  used  to  characterize  them  as  known  by  professors 
or  experts,  or  as  found  in  books.  For  there  is  also  to  be 
included  under  these  terms  those  fragments  of  knowledge 
found  crystallized  in  custom,  embodied  in  tradition,  and 
in  the  practice  of  the  more  common  occupations,  such  as 
farming,  stock-raising,  housekeeping,  dressmaking,  etc. 
For  example,  to  know  how  to  make  bread  is  natural  science, 
but  this  knowledge,  like  a  world  of  other  information, 
comes  to  most  housekeepers  through  tradition. 

Furthermore,  these  factors  are  not  to  be  viewed  as 
things  that  are  fixed,  but  as  things  that  are  ever  changing 
and  undergoing  improvement.  For  a  progressive  society 
implies  the  presence  of  natural  sciences  that  are  ever  wid- 
ening their  boundaries  and  deepening  their  insights,  the 
presence  of  social  sciences  that  are  ever  bringing  forth 
conceptions  and  institutions  permitting  freer  and  better 
modes  of  social  participation  and  activity,  the  presence 
of  a  literature  which  serves  as  the  medium  for  expressing 
and  recording  the  achievements  of  the  mind,  that  is  ever 
becoming  richer  in  its  content  and  more  inspiring  in  its 
teachings,   the  presence  of  an  art  that  grows  more  at- 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  13 

tractive  in  its  form  and  more  human  in  its  theme,  and  the 
presence  of  a  religion  that  is  ever  growing  truer  in  its 
conceptions,  more  reiined  in  its  motive,  and  more  rational 
in  its  appeal.  Let  improvement  in  one  or  more  of  these 
factors  stop,  and  the  whole  or  a  part  of  social  development 
is  arrested. 

3.  Source  of  Artificial  Factors.  —  The  mere  enumeration 
of  the  artificial  factors  of  social  progress  throws  little  Hght 
upon  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  social  development. 
Light  will,  however,  be  shed  upon  his  relation  to  the 
development  of  society,  if  the  source  of  these  factors  is 
considered. 

An  organism  such  as  a  butterfly  or  a  house  fly  is  moved 
to  action  by  instincts.  The  human  individual  is  likewise 
moved  to  action  by  inherited  tendencies  or  impulses. 

Though  the  individual  is  dynamic  by  virtue  of  possess- 
ing these  impulses,  their  general  effect,  when  taken  alone, 
notwithstanding  they  impel  to  action,  is  to  render  the 
individual  non-progressive.  The  non-progressive  influ- 
ence of  inborn  tendencies  is  to  be  seen  in  the  animal  world 
at  large,  in  particular  in  the  way  bees  make  the  cells  of  the 
honey-comb,  birds  build  their  nests,  and  ants  form  their 
hills.  The  influence  of  inborn  tendencies  is  non-pro- 
gressive because,  though  they  give  rise  to  needs,  they  do 
not  supply  the  means  of  gratifying  these  needs,  and  though 
they  constrain  to  action,  they  do  not  carry  in  themselves 
a  knowledge  of  the  ends  to  be  reached  through  action. 

The  capacity  to  devise  means,  to  conceive  of  ends  as 
well  as  to  choose  between  them,  resides  in  the  higher  powers 
of  the  human  intellect.  It  is  this  power  of  invention  and 
choice  in  conjunction  with  inborn  tendencies  or  imniil  ;cs 
that    renders    the    individual    progressive    and    creative. 


14       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

To  illustrate,  hunger  impels  the  individual  to  seek  food. 
By  accident,  berries,  say,  are  found.  The  intellect  seizes 
upon  the  fact,  and  on  the  return  of  hunger  the  memory 
of  these  comes  to  mind.  If  berries  fail,  other  foods  are 
sought,  and  nuts,  roots,  etc.,  are  discovered  and  eaten. 
Under  the  impelling  force  of  appetite  and  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  higher  powers  of  the  intellect,  the  number  of 
known  edibles  is  gradually  increased;  by  degrees,  only 
the  better  ones  are  selected  and  eaten,  methods  of  pre- 
serving and  preparing  these  invented,  means  of  artificially 
producing  them  devised,  and  ways  of  procuring  additional 
and  foreign  ones  established.  Man  has  thus  gradually  ad- 
vanced from  the  point  where  he  was  at  the  mercy  of  finding 
food  wherever  it  had  chanced  to  grow,  to  the  stage  where 
he  consciously  cultivates,  preserves,  prepares,  and  supplies 
himself  with  all  that  is  essential  to  his  nourishment. 

The  source  of  the  artificial  factors  of  social  progress  is 
to  be  found,  therefore,  in  the  progressive  creativeness  of 
the  individual.  Take,  as  an  example,  the  rise  and  develop- 
ment of  natural  science.  Life  is  preserved,  and  preserved 
well,  only  as  advantage  is  taken  of  nature.  The  bringing 
of  nature  into  the  service  of  life  presupposes  knowledge 
of  natural  things.  Such  knowledge  —  though  it  be  of  the 
simplest  and  most  empirical  kind  —  is  natural  science, 
and,  if  arranged  according  to  meaning,  it  is  natural  science 
in  the  accepted  sense.  Natural  science  may  therefore  be 
viewed  as  the  product  of  impulse  and  of  the  higher  powers 
of  the  human  intellect.  In  like  manner  each  of  the  arti- 
ficial factors  may  be  regarded  as  the  product  of  one  or  more 
impulses  and  of  human  intelligence.  As  these  factors  exist 
in  their  present  state,  they  are  not,  of  course,  the  instan- 
taneous outcome  of  the  expression  of  impulse  and  the 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  15 

creativeness  of  the  intellect,  but  the  resultant  of  ages  of 
effort  in  the  endeavor  to  satisfy  human  needs. 

4.  The  Agent  of  Social  Development.  —  If  England  of 
today  is  contrasted  with  England  of  the  time  of  the  Nor- 
man Conquest,  great  changes  and  improvements  will  be 
observed.  Scarcely  less  striking  is  the  contrast  between 
life  in  the  United  States  in  1789  and  Hfe  in  the  United 
States  today.  In  view  of  our  purpose,  the  important 
question  is,  how  were  these  improvements  brought 
about? 

It  may  be  inferred,  from  the  relation  the  individual 
bears  to  the  artificial  factors  of  social  development,  that 
every  new  increment  added  and  every  new  application 
made  of  these  factors  is  his  work.  Since  the  individual 
alone  is  able  to  add  new  increments  to  the  artificial  factors 
and  to  apply  these  to  social  development,  he  is  the  sole 
agent  in  the  initiation  of  social  progress. 

The  manner  in  which  a  given  improvement  is  actually 
brought  about,  or  the  way  social  progress  is  consummated, 
is,  however,  not  so  simple.  All  the  proposed  contributions 
to  natural  science,  social  science,  or  religion  are  not  ac- 
cepted; all  the  reforms  in  family  life,  in  social  intercourse, 
and  in  the  body  poHtic  that  are  agitated  do  not  become 
crystallized  in  custom  or  embodied  in  law.  Over  and 
above  the  individual  who  creates  or  initiates,  there  stands 
a  selective  agent  —  a  court  that  decides  upon  which 
offerings  shall  be  accepted.  This  court  is  society  —  the 
many  individuals  who  appreciate  and  the  few  who  control. 
Approval  may  be  a  growth,  as  in  the  adoption  of  a  custom, 
or  it  may  be  by  an  act  of  legislation,  as  in  the  aboUtion  of 
slavery.  Since  only  those  results  of  individual  produc- 
tiveness and  initiation  which  are  socially  approved  cul- 


i6         PRINCIPLES  OF  "ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

minate  in  social  advancement,  society  would  seem  to  be 
the  agent  through  which  social  progress  is  consummated. 

A  study  of  the  nature  of  social  approval  leads,  however, 
to  another  conclusion.  Take  as  a  type  of  reform  con- 
summated through  conscious  social  action,  the  abohtion 
of  slavery.  The  idea  of  its  abolition  had  its  birth  in  the 
mind  of  an  individual,  but  his  advocacy  of  it  alone  could 
never  have  accomplished  the  desired  end.  Other  indi- 
viduals appreciated  the  idea,  changed  it  according  to  their 
bias,  and  made  it  their  own.  Gradually,  the  necessity 
of  abolishing  slavery  became  the  accepted  conviction  of 
the  American  people,  and  finally  this  was  done  through 
an  act  of  their  representatives.  Though  this  reform  was 
not  made  effective  by  the  individual  as  such,  yet  he  was 
the  instrument  of  it  from  its  inception  to  its  completion, 
and  what  is  true  here  is  true  of  all  movements  for  social 
betterment.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  difference  between 
the  individual  as  the  agent  who  initiates  and  as  the  agent 
who  consummates.  For  the  initiation  of  social  improve- 
ment rests  with  him  as  an  individual,  whereas  its  con- 
summation is  the  work  of  individuals  either  in  a  personal 
or  representative  capacity. 

5.  The  Test  of  Social  Development.  —  The  relation  of  the 
individual  to  the  development  of  society  is  further  revealed 
in  the  test  of  social  progress.  The  only  motive  the  indi- 
vidual has  for  bringing  forth  the  artificial  factors  involved 
and  in  applying  these  to  the  improvement  of  the  social 
order  is  that  he  may  better  his  own  condition  or  promote 
the  welfare  of  others.  Where  the  desired  good  can  be 
attained  without  the  intervention  of  social  authority,  the 
individual  acts  upon  his  own  idea  or  upon  the  suggestion 
of  another,  because  he  thereby  gains  something  which  he 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  17 

feels  is  of  worth  to  himself  or  to  others.  Where  the  pro- 
posed innovation  must  be  collectively  or  officially  ap- 
proved, the  approval  is,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  —  at 
least  in  modern  democracies  —  an  expression  of  the  will 
of  the  people,  and  is  given  because  the  reform  is  viewed 
as  conducive  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  best  interests 
of  the  members  of  the  given  social  whole.  To  be  sure, 
under  every  existing  form  of  society  there  live  multitudes 
whose  condition  is  not  ideal,  and  who  would  sanction  but 
a  portion  of  the  social  restraints  imposed  upon  them;  it 
is  also  to  be  conceded  that  social  action  is  not  always 
determined  with  reference  to  the  welfare  of  all,  but  at 
times  with  respect  to  the  interest  of  the  few.  Neverthe- 
less, where  society  does  advance,  this  progress  is  favorable 
to  the  higher  and  better  Hfe  of  its  members.  Indeed,  in 
view  of  the  source  of  its  constituent  factors,  in  view  of 
the  agent  initiating  it  and  bringing  it  about,  social  develop- 
ment can  have  no  other  test  than  human  welfare  —  the 
higher  life  of  the  individual. 

;  6.  The  Individual  and  Social  Progress.  —  Being  the 
source  of  the  artificial  factors  involved  therein,  and  being 
the  agent  who  both  initiates  and  consummates,  the  indi- 
vidual naturally  conditions  social  development.  The 
development  of  society  is,  of  course,  not  conditioned  by 
any  single  individual.  It  is,  however,  dependent  upon  the 
few  who  are  able  to  add  to  the  artificial  factors  and  to 
initiate  social  improvement,  and  upon  the  many  who  are 
able  to  appreciate  the  value  of  proposed  contributions 
and  to  assist  in  consummating  social  reforms.  Deprive 
a  social  order  of  individuals  able  to  prosecute  investiga- 
tions and  to  inaugurate  social  changes  for  the  better,  de- 
prive it  of  individuals  able  to  understand  the  value  of  these, 


1 8       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

—  as  was  practically  the  case  in  ancient  Egypt  and  China, 

—  and  the  given  society  ceases  to  develop  and  becomes 
static. 

§  6.  The  Individual  and  the  Aim  of  Society 

I.  The  Aim  of  Society.  —  In  view  of  the  test  of  social 
progress  set  forth  above,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  aim 
of  society  is  to  minister  to  the  needs  of  the  individual. 
The  individual  is,  as  we  have  seen,  dynamic,  creative,  and 
progressive.  By  virtue  of  these  qualities,  he  not  only 
seeks  to  satisfy  his  wants,  but  strives  to  gratify  them 
progressively  better.  However,  when  left  to  himself,  he 
will  not  always  do  this  in  ways  conducive  to  the  welfare 
of  others.  In  consequence,  society  seeks,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  aid  in  satisfying  in  the  highest  manner  all 
human  needs,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  constrain  the 
individual  to  gratify  his  wants  in  conformity  with  the 
interests  of  others.  For  this  reason  the  aim  of  society 
may  be  said  to  be  the  realization  of  the  highest  life  of  its 
members. 

Two  illustrations  will  make  this  clear.  When  individuals 
come  to  appreciate  higher  forms  of  life  than  those  they 
enjoy,  they  begin  to  strive  for  them.  If  these  higher 
privileges  cannot  be  secured  by  individual  effort  and 
under  the  given  social  Hmitations,  they  seek  to  mould 
public  opinion  so  as  to  impel  the  recognition  of  the  right 
to  labor  for  them,  and  to  bring  about  such  social  action 
as  will  aid  in  their  acquisition.  If  the  effort  is  successful, 
the  object  of  both  the  law  crystallizing  the  given  phase 
of  public  opinion  and  of  the  given  social  action  is  to  make 
possible  to  the  individual  a  particular  opportunity  or 
line  of  developmeiit.    Such  are  the  social  guarantees  of 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  ig 

life,  of  liberty,  of  equality,  the  right  to  property,  to  edu- 
cation, to  freedom  of  conscience,  to  freedom  of  speech, 
and  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  assured  by  modern  socie- 
ties to  their  citizens.  On  the  other  hand,  when  society 
comes  to  value  certain  qualities  of  character  or  a  certain 
type  of  manhood,  such  social  forms  are  instituted  and  such 
opportunities  afforded  as  will  call  out  or  impel  the  desired 
development  in  its  members.  The  particular  quaUty  of 
character  may  not  be  what  the  individual  acting  freely 
would  seek  to  acquire,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  one  favorable 
to  self-development  under  the  given  conditions  of  Ufe. 
Present-day  insistence  upon  intelligence,  veracity,  honesty, 
obedience,  industry,  temperance,  chastity,  etc.,  is  typical 
of  such  social  action.  Society  exists,  therefore,  —  at  least 
in  ideal,  —  to  meet  the  needs  of  its  members  and  to  foster 
individual  development. 

2.  The  Aim  of  Society  and  Social  Ideals.  —  Whatever 
the  aim  of  society  may  be  in  the  abstract,  in  the  concrete 
it  is  conditioned  by  social  ideals,  that  is,  by  the  ideals 
cherished  by  a  people  or  nation  as  a  whole.  The  social 
ideals  of  peoples  not  only  differ,  but  those  of  the  same 
nation  vary  from  age  to  age.  What  a  contrast  between 
the  standards  of  the  Germans  of  the  time  of  Tacitus  and 
the  standards  of  the  Germans  of  today,  between  the 
standards  of  France  of  the  Ancient  Regime  and  those  of 
the  Third  Republic,  between  the  ideals  of  Puritan  New 
England  and  those  of  our  expanding  democracy!  It  is, 
therefore,  nearer  the  truth  to  say  that  the  working  aim  of 
a  given  society  is  conditioned  by  the  conception  of  Life,  of 
equality,  of  liberty,  of  property,  of  freedom  of  speech 
and  of  conscience,  of  education  and  intelligence,  of  veracity, 
honesty,   obedience,   industry,    temperance,   and   chastity 


20       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

prevailing  at  the  given  time,  and  that  these  prevailing 
conceptions  condition  the  particular  ends  of  attainment 
held  before  the  members  of  the  given  society,  the  specific 
assistance  and  encouragement  given,  the  particular  limita- 
tions and  restrictions  imposed. 

3.  The  Source  of  Social  Ideals.  —  Society  in  every  detail 
is  created  by  its  members,  yet  relatively  few  of  these 
participate  in  its  creation.  The  abihty  to  make  a  contri- 
bution to  the  fund  of  social  knowledge,  of  initiating  a  new 
custom  or  convention,  of  introducing  a  ferment  in  social 
life  which  will  raise  society  to  a  higher  level,  —  such 
ability  is  possessed  only  by  individuals  who  have  excep- 
tional capacity  for  living  near  the  life  of  the  people,  of 
absorbing  their  wisdom  and  spirit,  of  ministering  to  their 
needs,  and  of  formulating  their  aspirations.  Such  individ- 
uals are  the  best  endowed,  the  most  gifted  of  the  race. 
They  are  our  Agassizes  and  Morses,  our  Whittiers  and 
Emersons,  our  Barnards  and  Manns,  our  Edwardses  and 
Beechers,  our  Washingtons  and  Lincolns.  Any  given 
society  is,  therefore,  the  product  of  the  creative  genius 
of  the  relatively  few.  These  are,  however,  typical  indi- 
viduals, and  for  this  reason  society,  though  the  work  of 
the  few,  represents  the  thoughts,  ideals,  and  aspirations 
of  all. 

Social  ideals,  hke  other  parts  of  society,  have  their  in- 
ception in  the  individual  —  not,  of  course,  in  the  ordinary 
individual,  but  in  the  superior,  the  well-endowed.  Every 
ideal  in  its  original  form  is  an  individual's  idea  of  how  he 
or  his  fellows  may  best  meet  some  need,  or  of  how  under 
the  given  social  conditions  he  may  promote  his  or  their 
development.  His  idea  may,  to  be  sure,  be  modified  by 
others  as  individuals,  before  it  is  received  by  them  and 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  AND  SOCIETY  21 

advocated  as  a  principle  of  social  action,  and  it  may  be 
still  further  modified  by  others  in  office,  before  it  is  ac- 
cepted and  imposed  upon  the  members  of  the  given  society 
through  legal  enactment.  However  much  or  little  may 
be  taken  from  or  added  to  the  original  conception,  the 
foregoing  is  the  history  of  every  ideal  cherished  by  modern 
democracies.  Hence  the  individual  is  not  only  the  source 
of  social  ideals,  but  of  every  change  made  in  them  from 
their  inception  to  their  acceptance,  and  even  their  accept- 
ance is  his  work. 

4.  Ideals  oj  the  Individual  and  the  Aim  of  Society.  — 
Since  the  aim  of  society  is  embodied  in  social  ideals,  and 
these  are  but  the  highest  conceptions  of  gifted  individuals 
of  how  to  order  collective  life  so  that  it  may  be  most  con- 
ducive to  the  well-being  of  the  individual,  the  aim  of  a 
given  society  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  the  fused  total 
of  the  highest  ideals  brought  forth  by  its  most  eminent 
members  both  past  and  present.  The  aim  of  our  own 
social  order  is,  for  example,  but  the  fused  total  of  the  ideals 
brought  forth  and  cherished  by  those  sturdy  men  and 
women  who  have  made  our  country's  history  in  industry, 
in  social  institutions,  in  science  and  education,  in  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  art,  and  religion.  Being  the  source  of 
social  ideals,  it  is  therefore  the  individual  —  the  rela- 
tively few  well  endowed  —  that  determines  the  aim  of 
society. 

5.  The  Individual  and  the  Perfection  of  Society.  —  Being 
thus  conditioned,  it  is  only  the  individual  that  is  able  so 
to  modify  the  ends  of  society  as  to  make  possible  higher 
and  higher  modes  of  personal  living,  A  social  order  which 
afi'ords  increasingly  better  opportunities  for  personal 
living  is  being  perfected,  being  brought  nearer  and  nearer 


22         PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  ideal  society.     The  individual  is,  therefore,  also  the 
agent  of  social  perfection. 

§  7.  Conclusions 

In  view  of  the  outcome  of  our  discussion,  the  relation 
of  the  individual  to  society  appears  to  be  fundamental. 
First,  it  is  his  superior  intelligence  that  supplies  the  emo- 
tional and  intellectual  basis  and  bond  necessary  to  the  exist- 
ence and  continuance  of  society.  Second,  he  is  the  source 
of  the  artificial  factors  implied  in  social  development,  and 
not  only  initiates  social  progress  but  consummates  it,  and 
his  freer,  richer  life  is  its  test.  Third,  being  the  source  of 
social  ideals,  he  determines  the  aim  of  society  and  becomes 
the  agent  of  its  perfection.  In  short,  society  is  dependent 
upon  the  individual  for  its  existence  and  continuance,  its 
development,  and  its  perfection. 

Readings 

Ross,  Social  Control,  pp.  1-48. 

Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  pp.  87-115. 

Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  pp.  252-259,  269-274,  317-325. 

Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  22-31. 

Baldwin,  The  Individual  and  Society,  pp.  13-76. 

Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  pp.  283-325. 

Small  and  Vincent,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society,  pp.  100-166. 

Dealey  and  Ward,  Text- Book  of  Sociology,  pp.  169-175,  200-207,  267-287. 

Ely,  Evolution  of  Industrial  Society,  pp.  398-425. 

Willoughby,  The  Nature  of  the  State,  pp.  309-350. 


CHAPTER  11 

THE  RELATION   OF   SOCIETY  TO   THE  INDIVIDUAL 

We  now  turn  to  the  second  question  suggested  above, 
that  of  the  relation  of  society  to  the  individual. 

§  I.  The  iNDivrouAL  and  His  Characteristics 

The  hiunan  individual  is  able  to  conceive  of  himself 
as  a  self.  He  thinks  of  himself  as  the  subject  of  his  feel- 
ings and  the  controller  of  his  thoughts  and  actions.  He 
thinks  of  himself  as  having  a  past,  a  present,  and  a  future; 
as  having  certain  worth  and  being  of  certain  importance; 
as  having  certain  rights  and  privileges;  and  as  having 
certain  duties  to  perform  with  reference  to  himself  and  to 
others.  When  thus  regarded,  there  are  three  character- 
istics of  the  individual  that  claim  attention. 

First,  according  to  the  law  of  heredity,  each  organism, 
within  hmits,  reproduces  its  kind,  and  man  is  no  exception. 
Each  human  individual  thus  inherits  the  qualities  of  his 
kind,  and  his  attributes  are  consequently  not  acquired, 
but  inherited.  Even  more  distinctive  is  the  fact  that  the 
condition  or  the  environment,  making  it  possible  for  the 
individual  to  enjoy  his  inborn  qualities,  is  not  at  least 
directly  inherited.  Nevertheless,  the  presence  of  such 
an  environment  is  essential,  if  the  human  individual  is  to 
live  the  life  made  accessible  to  him  by  heredity.  For  just 
as  the  Hfe  of  the  frog  presupposes  the  frog  pond,  so  to  be 


24        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

a  human  individual  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term  implies 
surroundings  which  provide  opportunity  to  live  according 
to  the  requirements  and  possibilities  of  his  inherited 
nature. 

Second,  the  new-bom  child  does  not  think;  there  is  no 
recognition  of  an  "I";  no  distinguishing  of  self  from 
other  selves;  no  projection  of  ends  and  adjustment  of  means 
to  their  attainment.  The  child  at  birth  possesses,  to  be 
sure,  by  virtue  of  heredity,  capacities  for  gaining  such 
insights,  but  in  reality  it  is  a  reflex-instinctive  machine 
set  to  the  performance  of  certain  preservative  activities. 
Indeed,  it  is  well  along  toward  the  fourteenth  year  before 
all  the  inborn  tendencies  of  life  make  their  appearance, 
before  the  child  attains  any  considerable  maturity  of 
thought,  and  before  it  comes  to  think  of  itself  to  any 
considerable  extent  as  a  self.  The  infant  is  consequently 
not  an  individual  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  but  merely 
one  in  embryo,  and  becomes  such  only  through  a  process 
of  development. 

Third,  the  human  individual  is  a  creature  of  wants,  and 
these  are  ever  constraining  him  to  action.  Gifted  with 
the  higher  forms  of  creative  thought,  he  is  not  only  able  to 
conceive  of  ways  of  satisfying  these,  but  also  able  to  con- 
ceive of  ways  which  to  him  are  better  than  those  he  enjoys. 
However  contrary  to  casual  observation  it  may  seem,  he 
ever  seeks  to  satisfy  his  wants  in  the  manner  which  seems 
to  him  to  be  the  best.  In  short,  the  individual  seeks  to 
live  the  fullest  and  richest  life,  to  attain  the  highest  self- 
realization  possible  to  him  under  the  given  conditions. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  25 

§  2.  The  Problem  Restated 

If  it  is  accepted  that  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 
the  individual  are,  that  his  nature  is  conditioned  by  hered- 
ity and  his  life  as  an  individual  by  an  environment  provid- 
ing opportunity  to  live  according  to  his  inheritance,  that 
he  is  subject  to  development,  and  that  he  seeks  the  highest 
self-realization  attainable  to  him,  then  the  relation  of 
society  to  the  individual  may  be  resolved  into  three  prob- 
lems: (i)  WTiat  is  the  relation  of  society  to  his  existence, 
that  is,  to  his  Ufe  as  an  individual  such  as  we  know  and 
feel  that  v/e  are?  (2)  What  is  its  relation  to  his  develop- 
ment? (3)  What  is  its  relation  to  the  aim  of  Hfe  held  and 
attained  by  him?  Each  of  these  questions  will  be  con- 
sidered in  turn. 

§  3.  Society  and  the  Existence  of  the  Individual 

I .  Society  and  the  Inherited  Attributes  of  the  Individual.  — 
Though  it  is  difTicult  to  see  in  the  modern  citizen  more 
than  the  dimmest  vestige  of  his  far  distant  ancestor,  — 
contrast  for  example  the  present-day  German  with  the 
German  of  the  time  of  Tacitus,  the  modern  Italian  with 
the  ancient  Lombard,  —  nevertheless  it  was  out  of  such 
material  that  man  as  now  known  was  evolved.  In  his 
development  from  dependency  upon  nature  to  that  of 
sustenance  through  organized  industry,  from  the  exercise 
of  mere  animal-like  functions  to  participation  in  the 
manifold  aspects  of  civilized  Hfe,  advance  has  been  from 
less  to  more  complicated  social  relations.  Qualities  suffi- 
ciently important  to  enable  those  who  possessed  them  to 
get  along  well  under  primitive  conditions  not  only  became 


26        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

useless,  but  often  proved  a  hindrance  in  higher  forms  of 
social  life:  for  example,  the  instinct  to  fight.  As  a  result, 
there  has  been  and  there  is  now  a  constant  elimination  of 
traits  useful  under  primitive  conditions  and  a  selection  of 
traits  useful  in  complex  social  relations.  Through  this 
selective  process,  determined  by  the  ever  varying  demands 
of  social  life,  the  inherited  nature  of  man  has  been  gradually 
transformed  and  given  its  present  character. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  transformation  of  human 
nature  under  the  action  of  social  selection,  take  the  acquired 
power  of  sustained  attention.  Striking,  indeed,  in  this 
respect  is  the  difference  between  the  savage  and  the  indi- 
vidual adapted  to  a  high  state  of  civilization.  Under 
strong  excitation,  such  as  imminent  danger,  the  attentive 
power  of  the  two,  to  be  sure,  differs  little;  the  difference 
becomes  apparent  only  when  external  stimuli  are  with- 
drawn. Much  of  this  difference  is  doubtless  due  to  con- 
scious purpose  and  to  education,  yet  a  considerable  portion 
of  it  has  its  basis  in  inherited  predisposition.  For  in  the 
development  of  man,  there  was  open  to  him  but  one  alter- 
native, that  of  perishing  or  of  adjusting  himself  to  more  and 
more  complex  modes  of  social  life.  This  increasing  com- 
plexity of  social  Ufe  imposed  greater  and  greater  demands 
upon  attention.  Those  who  could  not  meet  this  demand 
perished;  those  who  could  meet  it  survived  and  transmitted 
their  hereditary  power.  In  this  way  not  only  was  the 
mental  capacity  of  the  individual  gradually  increased,  but 
it  also  became  predisposed  to  express  itself  in  the  form  of 
sustained  attention.  "Attention  is  therefore  an  instru- 
ment that  has  been  perfected  —  a  product  of  civiliza- 
tion." 

The  power  of  reasoning  or  of  thought  possessed  by 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  27 

civilized  man  is  likewise  illustrative.  Travellers  are 
struck  with  the  lack  of  such  capacity  among  primitive 
peoples.  "The  Damaras,"  writes  Mr.  Gal  ton,  ''count 
with  difficulty  beyond  five,  and  if  two  sticks  of  tobacco 
were  the  rate  of  exchange  for  one  sheep,  it  would  sorely 
puzzle  a  Damara  to  take  two  sheep  and  give  him  four 
sticks.  To  be  intelligible,  each  sheep  must  be  paid  for 
separately."  Here,  again,  much  of  this  difi'erence  is 
doubtless  due  to  difTerence  in  the  direction  of  interest  and 
to  a  difference  in  environment  and  materials  of  thought. 
Still  some  of  it  is,  without  question,  due  to  a  difference  in 
capacity.  For  there  is  little  in  the  Hfe  of  primitive  peoples 
to  impel  reasoning,  while  the  transition  from  primitive 
conditions  to  modern  civilized  life  has  been  accompanied 
by  greater  and  greater  demands  upon  capacity  for  abstract 
thought.  Those  not  possessing  the  requisite  capacity  suc- 
cumbed and  perished,  whereas  those  having  such  capacity 
survived  and  flourished.  Thus,  under  the  selective  action 
of  society,  men  were  born  mth  gradually  increasing  powers 
of  thought  and  came  to  be  endowed  with  such  capacity 
for  reasoning  as  is  found  among  civilized  peoples. 

Although  there  are  cases  of  primitive  peoples  who  seem 
always  to  have  lived  at  peace  among  themselves  and  their 
neighbors,  like  the  Eskimos,  it  is  generally  recognized  that 
most  primitive  folk  are  warlike,  and  that  those  races  have 
survived  wliich  proved  themselves  the  best  fighters.  For 
there  was  a  time  when  the  fighting  instinct  was  of  supreme 
importance.  With  the  change  of  social  life  from  a  mihtary 
to  an  intellectual  and  ethical  basis,  the  fighting  instinct 
did  not  retain  its  primary  significance;  sympathy,  sociality, 
and  intelligence  became  of  greater  worth.  In  this  new 
order  and   under   these   changed    conditions,   the   citizen 


28        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

pugnacious  by  nature  came  to  be  at  a  disadvantage,  and 
was  gradually  displaced  by  the  more  sympathetic,  social, 
and  intelligent.  As  a  result,  the  more  pugnacious  were 
gradually  eliminated  and  there  was  bred  in  man  a  deeper 
natural  sympathy  and  a  stronger  natural  tendency  to 
cooperation,  such  as  is  found  in  the  modern  man. 

As  a  final  illustration,  take  a  trait  almost  unknown  to 
savages  —  the  predisposition  to  work.  It  comes  natural 
to  the  members  of  modern  society  to  labor.  This  may 
be  due  somewhat  to  interest,  to  example,  to  education, 
and  to  the  development  of  other  qualities,  still  it  depends 
in  large  measure  upon  inherited  disposition,  and  the  indi- 
vidual bom  under  centuries  of  civilization  works  as  nat- 
urally as  the  pointer  points  or  the  race-horse  runs.  Savages 
as  a  rule  are  lazy,  and  the  dictum,  "Indian,  no  work," 
applies  to  all  barbaric  peoples.  Even  half-civihzed  tribes 
find  labor  repugnant,  and  it  is  only  among  highly  developed 
nations  that  there  is  found  the  hereditary  tendency  and 
power  of  continuous  application.  Even  among  the  fore- 
most of  modern  people,  there  is  a  class  of  individuals  — 
vagabonds,  thieves,  etc.  —  who  seem  incapable  of  pro- 
tracted effort;  these  are,  however,  viewed  as  abnormals 
and  dealt  with  as  such.  Industry  being  a  condition  of 
liigher  life,  in  the  transition  from  barbarism  to  civilization 
the  lazy  and  good-for-nothing  perished,  and  the  industrious 
survived  and  transmitted  their  capacity  and  predisposi- 
tion to  labor.  Thus  the  modern  citizen,  under  the  social 
determination  of  heredity,  was  bred  to  work  and  gradually 
acquired  those  characteristics  described  by  Mr.  Chadwick 
as,  "Great  bodily  strength,  applied  under  the  command 
of  a  steady,  persevering  will,  mental  self-contentedness, 
impassibility    to    external   irrelevant   impressions,    which 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  29 

carries  them  through  the  continuous  repetition  of  toil- 
some labor,  'steady  as  time.'  "  ^ 

Illustrations  of  how  the  inherited  attributes  of  the  indi- 
vidual have  been  transformed  through  the  action  of  society 
and  made  what  they  now  are  might  be  multiplied  until 
the  whole  range  of  the  child's  inherited  traits  was  covered. 
A  sufficient  number,  however,  have  been  given  and  the 
principle  upon  which  the  determination  of  the  qualities 
transmitted  discussed  at  such  length  as  to  warrant  the 
inference  that  the  individual  owes  his  being  as  he  now 
is  to  society,  and  that  ^ociety  through  determining  the 
character  of  the  attributes  inherited  has  within  limits 
made  the  individual  what  he  now  is  as  an  organism.  With- 
out society  in  the  past,  the  individual  endowed  as  he  now 
is  would  therefore  not  exist.  There  would,  of  course,  be 
individuals,  even  if  there  had  never  been  forms  of  social 
life,  but  they  would  be  radically  different  in  inherited 
tendencies  and  capacities  from  the  ones  we  know. 

2.  Society  and  the  Living  of  Human  Life.  —  In  the 
second  paragraph  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  are 
found  these  words:  "We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evi- 
dent, that  all  men  are  created  equal,  that  they  are  en- 
dowed by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights, 
that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  hap- 
piness." If  to  the  above  we  add  the  right  to  property, 
we  have  a  relatively  complete  Ust  of  the  so-called  unaHen- 
able  rights  of  man. 

What  is  meant  by  an  unalienable  right?    To  be  sure, 

it  means  a  right  which  cannot,  except  for  cause,  be  taken 

away  or  denied   the  individual.     Its  meaning,   however, 

lies  deeper.     It  means   a  privilege  which   an   individual 

1  Quoted  from  Gallon,  Hereditary  Genius,  pp.  347-348. 


30        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

must  enjoy,  if  he  is  to  live  according  to  his  inherited  nature, 
if  he  is  to  Hve  as  a  human  being.  In  short,  we  mean  by 
unaUenable  rights  those  privileges  or  the  environment 
which  must  be  enjoyed  if  human  life  as  we  know  it  is  to  be 
lived.  For,  deny  the  individual  the  right  to  the  pursuit 
of  happiness,  to  liberty,  and  to  property  and  he  is  reduced 
to  slavery;  deny  him  the  right  to  hfe  and  he  is  lowered  to 
the  level  of  the  animal.  There  can  be  no  question  that  it 
is  the  enjoyment  of  these  privileges  along  with  others  that 
makes  possible  such  human  Ufe  and  living  as  we  know. 
Whence  are  these  natural  or  unaKenable  rights? 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  declares  they  are  the 
gift  to  the  individual  from  the  Creator.  That  there  are 
certain  laws  controlling  the  development  and  Hfe  of  the 
individual  writ  large  in  his  inlierited  nature  is  true;  this 
is  really  the  thought  of  our  forefathers.  That  man,  to  Hve 
the  fullest  and  richest  Hfe,  must  conform  to  these  laws  is 
also  true,  but  that  the  Creator  guarantees  the  individual 
in  the  rights  impHed  in  Hving  in  accord  with  his  nature 
and  suppHes  him  with  the  conditions  most  favorable  to  this 
is  not  true;  these  privileges  or  this  environment  must  be 
guaranteed  and  supplied  by  other  agencies. 

To  think  that  the  so-called  unalienable  rights  of  man 
are  the  gift  of  the  Creator  rests  upon  a  misconception  of 
what  constitutes  a  right  in  any  human  sense.  Professor 
Holland^  defines  a  right  as  ''one  man's  capacity  of  in- 
fluencing the  acts  of  another  by  means  not  of  his  own 
strength,  but  of  the  opinion  or  force  of  society."  "There 
can  be  no  rights,"  says  Green,^  "without  a  consciousness 
of  common  interests  on  the  part  of  members  of  society. 

1  Quoted  from  Green,  Prolegomena  to  Ethics. 

2  Green,  Prolegomena  to  Ethics,  pp.  191-202. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  31 

Without  this,  there  might  be  certain  powers  on  the  part 
of  the  individuals,  but  no  recognition  of  these  powers  by 
others  as  powers  of  which  they  should  allow  the  exercise, 
nor  any  claim  to  such  recognition,  and  without  this  recog- 
nition or  claim  to  recognition  there  can  be  no  right." 
A  right,  then,  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  privilege 
guaranteed  or  an  opportunity  supplied  the  individual  by 
the  social  whole  of  which  he  is  a  part,  and  it  is  not  some- 
thing born  with  or  inherent  in  him.  The  framers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  recognized  this,  for  after 
enumerating  the  more  important  of  the  so-called  unalien- 
able rights  the  Declaration  runs,  "To  secure  these  rights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men." 

There  are,  therefore,  no  rights  belonging  to  the  indi- 
vidual —  in  the  sense  that  he  is  secure  in  them  —  other 
than  those  guaranteed  by  the  society  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  That  the  American  citizen  enjoys  the  right  to 
life,  to  property,  to  liberty,  and  to  the  pursuit  of  happiness 
is  not  because  these  are  natural  rights,  but  because  they  are 
secured  him  by  our  Constitution;  the  same  individual  as 
a  member  of  a  different  government,  as  Russia,  would 
have  different  privileges,  while  alone  on  an  island  in- 
habited by  tigers  only,  he  would  enjoy  none. 

Apart  from  social  relations,  the  individual  possesses 
consequently  only  those  privileges  and  opportunities  and 
only  that  environment  which  he  can  of  himself  secure  for 
himself.  He  who  boasts  that  his  Hfe  is  sacred,  that  he 
possesses  property,  that  he  is  free,  that  he  can  Uve  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  his  nature  states,  therefore, 
but  half  a  truth,  and  should  complete  his  declaration  by 
adding,  "because  these  privileges  are  guaranteed  by  the 
society  of  which  I  am  a  member." 


32        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Since  the  Individual  must  enjoy  certain  rights  In  order 
to  live  as  a  human  being,  and  since  It  is  the  social  order  of 
which  he  is  a  part  that  secures  to  him  whatever  rights  he 
possesses,  it  is  therefore  society  that  makes  possible  human 
life  as  we  know  it.  For,  take  away  these  social  guarantees, 
this  environment,  and  the  individual  is  reduced  to  the 
level  of  the  savage,  and  human  life  as  now  lived  ceases 
to  be.  _l 

3.  Conclusion.  —  That  the  individual  inherits  the  im- 
pulsive tendencies  and  mental  capacities  he  now  does  Is 
due,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  selective  action  of  society 
upon  his  ancestors,  and  that  he  Is  able  to  live  the  life  he 
now  lives  is  made  possible  by  his  political,  industrial, 
educational,  and  religious  privileges  and  opportunities  — 
in  a  word,  is  made  possible  by  the  environment  guaran- 
teed by  the  social  order  of  which  he  is  a  member.  The 
existence  of  the  individual  as  he  now  is  in  body,  mind,  and 
spirit  is  therefore  conditioned  by  society  of  the  past,  while 
the  existence  of  human  Hfe  as  now  hved  is  conditioned  by 
that  of  the  present.  In  short,  society  —  taking  that  of 
the  past  and  present  together  —  conditions  the  existence 
of  such  individuals  as  we  are  in  psychical  endowment  and 
manner  of  Hving. 

§  4.  Society  and  the  Development  of  the  iNoivrouAL 

I.  Capacities  for  Psychical  Development.  —  The  child's 
capacities  for  development  are  the  impulsive  tendencies 
and  mental  traits  inherited  from  his  parents. 

Much  has  been  made  of  late  of  the  uncoordinated 
character  of  the  nervous  system  of  the  new-born,  and  of 
its  plasticity  during  the  period  of  infancy.  It  Is  the  lack 
gf  nervous  complexity  and  of  plasticity  among  animals 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  33 

that  bars  to  them  after  birth  all  but  the  slightest  develop- 
ment and  training.  Animals,  as  it  were,  are  born  educated. 
The  child,  in  contrast,  by  virtue  of  an  abundance  of  un- 
coordinated nerve  cells  and  by  virtue  of  the  ease  with  which 
these  may  be  moulded  in  desired  ways,  is  susceptible  after 
birth  of  large  development  and  of  a  long  period  of  educa- 
tion. The  uncoordinated  character  of  the  nervous  system 
of  the  child  and  its  plasticity  should,  however,  not  be 
regarded  as  traits  that  develop,  but  as  accompanying 
conditions  of  the  child's  several  tendencies  and  capacities. 

2 .  Development  of  the  Individual  Dependent  upon  Materials 
of  Culture.  —  Whatever  capacity  for  development  the  child 
may  possess,  the  degree  of  attainment  he  achieves  is  not 
conditioned  wholly  by  the  impulsive  and  mental  traits  he 
inherits;  this  depends  also  upon  the  materials  of  culture 
or  upon  the  psychical  environment  that  he  can  appropri- 
ate and  utilize  in  furthering  his  development.  An  illus- 
tration will  make  clear  the  correctness  of  this  position. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  primitive  peoples,  like  the 
Indians  and  Eskimos,  possess  capacity  for  development 
which  if  actualized  would  raise  them  to  a  stage  of  civiliza- 
tion higher  than  the  one  they  enjoy.  Yet  these  primitive 
peoples  with  their  native  ability  remain,  when  left  to 
themselves,  in  a  state  of  barbarism.  What  is  true  of  a 
people  is  in  this  case  true  also  of  the  individual.  In  the 
"Dark  Continent,"  there  are  doubtless  negroes  with  as 
much  natural  capacity  as  possessed  by  the  twelve  hundred 
and  more  negro  graduates  of  American  colleges,  but  per- 
haps nowhere  among  the  millions  of  native  Africans  is  there 
an  individual  whose  attainments  could  compare  with  those 
of  the  weakest  of  these  colored  graduates.  The  Franks, 
Teutons,  and  Britons  of  the  time  of  Caesar  possessed,  as 


34        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION 

is  generally  believed,  only  slightly  less  ability  than  their 
modern  descendants,  yet  individual  development  among 
them  was  far  below  that  of  the  present-day  German, 
Frenchman,  or  Englishman.  In  a  word  mere  capacity 
for  development  does  not  insure  it;  other  factors  are 
essential. 

Again,  the  appearance  of  such  individuals  in  Italy  in  the 
fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries,  as  Petrarch, 
Boccaccio,  and  others  was  not  due  to  a  sudden  increase 
of  capacity  in  the  ItaHans,  nor  wholly  to  the  exceptional 
abiUties  of  these  men,  but  rather  to  the  new  conception 
of  Hfe  and  the  new  materials,  acquired  during  the  Renais- 
sance, upon  which  they  could  react.  The  difference  be- 
tween a  Sandwich  Islander  or  a  New  Zealander  of  today 
and  of  a  hundred  years  ago  is  not  due  to  difference  in  ability, 
but  to  a  change  in  the  conditions  of  psychical  development 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  into  these  lands  of 
Western  civiHzation.  Likewise,  the  difference  between 
the  early  Franks,  Teutons,  and  Britons,  and  the  French, 
Germans,  and  EngHsh  of  today  is  explainable  only  upon 
the  ground  of  change  in  the  materials  of  culture. 

Though  the  development  attained  by  the  individual 
is  conditioned  by  the  materials  of  culture  which  he  can 
make  his  own,  yet  neither  capacity  for  development  nor 
the  materials  thereof  should  be  exalted  one  over  the  other, 
nor  should  they  be  thought  of  apart,  for  both  are  essential 
to  a.  well-rounded  hfe.  It  is,  however,  probably  true  that 
favorable  materials  of  culture  are  a  larger  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  individual  than  exceptional  capacity. 

3.  Materials  of  Culture.  —  The  materials  of  culture, 
upon  which  the  development  of  the  individual  depends, 
comprise  —  at  least  in  the  case  of  highly  civilized  people 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  35 

—  natural  science,  social  science,  literature,  art,  religion, 
and  general  spirit. 

Natural  science,  as  an  element,  includes  besides  our 
systematized  knowledge  of  mathematics,  physics,  chemis- 
try, botany,  zoology,  etc.,  and  our  insight  into  the  way 
in  which  these  arc  applied  to  the  practical  affairs  of  Hfe, 
that  knowledge  handed  down  by  tradition  from  genera- 
tion to  generation  and  employed  in  industries  like  stock- 
raising,  farming,  housekeeping,  and  blacksmitliing. 

Under  social  science  are  to  be  brought  occupations,  the 
family,  community,  state,  school,  and  church.  Here,  too, 
belong  those  customs  and  traditions  which  envelop  every 
line  of  social  intercourse,  as  well  as  all  social  ideals,  theories, 
and  knowledge  of  means  which  determine  and  influence 
the  social  order. 

With  literature  are  to  be  classed  language  and  writing 
characterized  by  permanence  of  truth  and  beauty  of  style, 
such  as  poetry,  fiction,  history,  and  philosophy,  also  what 
may  be  designated  unwritten  literature,  that  is,  those  stories, 
fancies,  and  traditions  which  permeate  and  color  the  Hfe 
of  a  people. 

To  the  art  element  belong  architecture,  sculpture,  music, 
and  painting  in  their  respective  development,  as  well 
as  the  particular  forms  in  which  these  manifest  themselves 
in  the  taste  of  the  people,  for  example,  in  amusement,  in 
dress,  in  public  parks  and  buildings,  and  in  the  home. 

Under  religion  are  to  be  brought  sacred  Uterature,  creeds, 
ceremonies,  modes  of  worship,  ideals  of  hfe,  and  all  pertain- 
ing to  direct  moral  and  rehgious  teachings. 

Though  the  element  designated  "general  spirit"  is 
invisible  and  intangible,  a  short  absence  from  one's  own 
folk  brings  it  within  the  range  of  feeling.    So  powerful  is 


36        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

it  that  it  gives  color  to  all  the  other  elements,  and  under 
its  potency  one  finds  himself  falling  into  the  ways  of  thought, 
feeling,  and  action  of  the  people  with  whom  he  Hves.  "The 
spirit  of  a  people,"  writes  Falkenberg,^  "is  not  a  phrase,  an 
empty  name,  but  a  real  force,  not  a  sum  of  the  individuals 
belonging  to  a  people,  but  an  encompassing  and  controlling 
power  which  brings  forth  in  the  whole  body,  processes 
(e.g.,  language)  which  could  not  occur  in  individuals  as 
such." 

A  comparison  of  the  elements  of  the  materials  of  culture 
with  the  artificial  factors  of  social  development  reveals 
the  fact  that  the  two  are  the  same.  The  inference  to  be 
drawn  is  that  the  artificial  factors  making  social  progress 
possible  are  at  the  same  time  those  that  condition  the 
development  of  the  individual. 

4.  Materials  of  Culture  as  Materials  of  Development.  — 
The  reason  why  these  materials  of  culture  are  the  materials 
of  psychical  development  is  not  far  to  seek.  Each  incre- 
ment of  the  materials  of  culture  was  brought  forth  by  the 
individual,  as  we  have  seen,  because  it  was  the  insight  or 
knowledge  of  means  needed  to  enable  him  to  give  such 
expression  and  direction  to  an  impulse,  or  so  to  control 
his  actions  as  to  satisfy  a  practical  need  or  to  attain  a 
development  higher  than  that  which  he  enjoyed,  and  it 
serves  the  same  function  in  the  life  of  whoever  makes  it 
his  own  and  applies  it.  To  illustrate,  the  individual  is 
born  into  the  world  with  capacity  for  science,  and  in  the 
scientific  element  of  the  materials  of  culture  he  finds  ready 
to  hand  materials  upon  which  to  exercise  his  ability  and 
through  the  aid  of  which  he  may  foster  his  development 
along  scientific  lines.  He  possesses  social  tendencies,  and 
*  Falkenberg,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy,  p.  623, 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  37 

the  element  of  the  materials  of  culture  having  to  do  with 
institutions  and  social  life  supplies  the  medium  of  gi\dng 
both  expression  and  direction  to  these.  The  artistic  ele- 
ment furnishes  him  \vith  the  means  of  artistic  enjoyment 
and  of  cultivating  his  taste,  while  the  religious  element 
affords  him  materials  adapted  to  foster  his  aptitude  for 
morahty  and  religion.  The  materials  of  culture  are  there- 
fore the  materials  of  development,  because  they  supply 
the  means  necessary  to  the  exercise  and  expression  of 
psychical  tendencies  and  capacities.  It  follows  that 
the  degree  and  type  of  attainment  accessible  to  the  indi- 
vidual are  conditioned  not  only  by  the  materials  of  culture, 
but  by  the  character  of  those  that  he  is  able  to  appropriate. 

5.  Society  and  iJtc  Materials  of  Culture.  — An  individual 
alone  upon  an  island  and  independent  of  others  might 
gain  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  which  would  be  helpful 
in  adjusting  himself  to  his  natural  surroundings,  and  which 
would  serve  also  as  the  medium  of  a  certain  amount  of 
psychical  development.  Still,  the  amount  of  fruitful 
experience  an  isolated  individual  could  acquire  by  himself 
within  a  Hfetime  would  be  small  and  would  avail  Httle  as 
a  means  of  Hvelihood  and  of  culture.  Furthermore,  the 
experience  of  this  supposed  isolated  individual  would 
perish  with  him,  and  on-coming  generations  would  not 
profit  by  his  labors.  If  men  hved  in  relative  isolation, 
each  new  individual  would  consequently  begin  his  inde- 
pendent existence  at  relatively  the  same  point,  each  would 
discover  practically  the  same  facts,  and  these  would  in 
turn  perish  with  him.  That  varied  and  rich  materials 
of  culture  could  not  exist  with  men  living  in  isolation  is 
therefore  obvious. 

In  our  study  of  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society, 

53774 


38        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

we  made  him  the  ultimate  creative  agent.  If  what  seemed 
to  be  the  work  of  the  individual  is  examined  more  carefully, 
it  will  prove  to  be  the  product  of  social  rather  than  of  indi- 
vidual endeavor.  That  is,  it  will  be  found  that  a  given 
production  is  made  possible  to  the  individual  through  the 
aid  of  others.  To  illustrate,  Marconi  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented wireless  telegraphy,  but  back  of  this  invention  lie 
centuries  of  history  in  which  is  recorded  the  labor  of  hun- 
dreds. Each  of  these  workers  contributed  his  part  in 
enabhng  Marconi  to  make  his  invention.  Doubtless  the 
greatest  single  addition  to  science  during  the  last  century 
was  the  Origin  of  Species  by  Darwin;  though  this  was 
the  work  of  one  master  mind,  many  directly  or  indirectly 
had  a  share  in  it.  Spencer's  Principles  of  Sociology 
was  by  no  means  a  small  contribution,  yet  in  the  first 
volume  he  quotes  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  different 
authors.  The  same  is  true  of  the  creations  of  the  hand. 
"All  that  man  produces  today  more  than  his  cave-dwelling 
ancestors,  he  produces  by  virtue  of  the  accumulated 
achievements,  inventions,  and  improvements  of  the  inter- 
vening generations,  together  with  the  social  and  industrial 
machinery  which  is  their  legacy.  .  .  .  Nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  parts  out  of  the  thousand  of  every  man's  pro- 
duce are  the  results  of  his  social  inheritance  and  environ- 
ment." Though  the  individual  is  the  center  and  source 
of  the  creative  energy  of  the  human  world,  apart  from  his 
feUows  he  is  shorn  of  his  power.  Only  as  he  is  aided  by 
them  is  he  able  to  bring  forth  those  creations  of  mind, 
heart,  and  hand  which  contribute  to  the  development  of 
materials  of  culture.  Collective  aid  of  others  is,  however, 
dependent  upon  forms  of  social  Ufe.  It  is,  therefore, 
society  in   the  last  analysis   that  makes  the  individual 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  39 

productive  and  enables  him  to  create  those  ideals  of  life 
and  that  knowledge  of  means  implied  in  materials  of 
culture  other .  than  of  the  lowest  order. 

The  individual,  through  the  aid  of  others,  makes  his 
contribution  and  ceases  to  be,  whereas  the  social  order  of 
which  he  is  a  part  may  continue  century  after  century. 
Because  the  social  order  does  Hve  on,  it  supplies  the  con- 
ditions for  passing  on  the  accumulations  and  creations  of 
one  generation  to  another.  By  reason  of  this  transmission, 
each  new  generation,  so  far  as  the  materials  of  development 
are  concerned,  begins  practically  where  the  preceding  one 
left  off,  and  is  free  to  press  on  to  new  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries. Not  only  does  social  Hfe  thus  place  at  the  dis- 
posal of  each  new  individual  the  fruitful  experiences  of  the 
past,  but,  at  least  among  the  more  highly  civilized  peoples 
of  modern  times,  it  renders  available  to  him  also  the  results 
of  the  work  of  his  contemporaries.  Through  the  medium  of 
social  Hfe,  the  generations  that  have  gone  before  labor  for 
those  that  come  after,  and  the  materials  that  each  new 
individual  may  make  his  own  and  use  as  a  means  of  self- 
development  are  equal  to  the  total  that  past  generations 
as  well  as  the  present  have  acquired.  Society,  by  thus 
rendering  possible  the  transmission  of  the  acquisition  of 
one  generation  to  another,  becomes  in  consequence  the 
condition  of  the  development  of  varied  materials  of  culture. 

It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  not  all  the  ac- 
quisitions of  the  past  are  handed  on  to  the  rising  genera- 
tion. Each  age  passes  judgment  upon  what  is  of  worth, 
and  tests  its  heritage  by  its  own  standards.  Under  this 
process  of  selection,  only  the  best  of  the  creations  of  past 
generations  are  preserved,  while  the  dregs  and  dross  are 
left  behind.     Such  a  selective  process  obviously  prcsup- 


40        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

poses  social  life.     It  is  therefore  society  that  conditions  the 
rise  of  rich  materials  of  culture. 

6.  Relation  of  Society  to  Individual  Development.  —  The 
relation  of  society  to  the  attainments  of  the  individual 
is  now  readily  understood.  Since  his  development,  other 
than  the  merest  modicum,  is  dependent  upon  materials  of 
culture,  and  since  these  in  their  variety  and  richness  are 
made  possible  by  social  life,  society  conditions  his  develop- 
ment. Further,  since  the  development  of  the  individual 
is  dependent  upon  the  particular  materials  of  culture  he 
can  appropriate  and  utiHze,  and  the  particular  materials 
of  culture  he  can  enjoy  are  those  made  accessible  by  the 
social  order  of  which  he  is  a  part,  the  society  of  which  the 
individual  is  a  member  conditions  also  the  character 
and  degree  of  development  attainable  by  him.  The  de- 
velopment of  EngHshmen  is  consequently  conditioned  by 
the  materials  of  culture  suppHed  and  made  available  by 
England,  of  Americans  by  those  furnished  and  rendered 
accessible  by  the  United  States,  and  so  on  to  the  lowest 
known  social  order,  that  of  the  Fuegians. 

§  5.   Society  and  the  Aim  of  the  Individual 

1.  Factors  Determining  Aim  of  Individual  Life.  —  Since 
the  individual  is  what  he  is  as  an  organism  by  virtue  of 
inherited  tendencies  and  capacities,  and  since  the  develop- 
ment of  these  is  dependent  upon  materials  of  culture,  the 
life  chosen  by  the  individual  as  his  own  is  conditioned  on 
the  one  hand  by  heredity  and  on  the  other  by  the  materials 
of  culture  or  the  psychical  environment  influencing  his 
development. 

2.  The  Individual  as  Predisposed  by  Heredity.  —  The 
individual,  as  the  resultant  of  heredity,  summarizes  in 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  41 

his  body  and  brain  those  characteristics  of  the  race,  of  the 
particular  branch  of  the  race,  and  of  the  particular  family 
to  which  he  belongs  that  have  proved  their  right  to  trans- 
mission. In  consequence,  heredity  determines  the  type 
or  character  of  human  Hfe.  No  individual,  however  much 
he  may  desire  it,  can  live  like  a  fish  or  like  a  bird,  or  exist 
without  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  ELis  Hfe  is  confined 
within  the  range  of  certain  propensities,  capacities,  and 
needs,  and  he  can  only  enjoy  the  kind  or  type  of  hfe  to 
which  he  is  disposed. 

Heredity  fixes  also  the  hmits  of  our  development.  How- 
ever desirable  it  might  be  to  have  the  strength  of  an  Atlas 
or  the  wisdom  of  an  Athena,  there  are  Hmits  to  our  develop- 
ment. The  athlete,  for  example,  may  train  with  increasing 
strength  for  months,  but  ultimately  he  comes  to  a  point 
beyond  which  he  cannot  go,  though  one  better  endowed 
excels  with  ease.  Similarly  with  mental  endeavor:  the 
student  learns  that  there  are  tilings  beyond  his  power 
which  he  must  leave  to  others  with  greater  inherited  abiHty. 
Even  the  gifted  find  that  they  have  their  Hmits. 

Though  human  Hfe  is  thus  conditioned  by  heredity, 
heredity  of  itself  merely  registers  or  preserves.  According 
to  its  law,  each  organism  reproduces  its  kind,  but  of  itself 
heredity  does  not  determine  what  organisms  shaH  reproduce 
and  thereby  condition  what  characteristics  shaU  be  trans- 
mitted. This  rests  with  forces,  apart  from  heredity,  act- 
ing as  a  selective  agent.  The  selective  forces  which  act 
upon  man  and  condition  what  individuals  shall  Hve  and 
transmit  their  characteristics  are,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
needs  of  social  Hfe. 

The  survival  of  an  organism  depends  in  general  upon 
its  abiHty  to  adjust  itself  to  the  given  selective  environ- 


42        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ment,  and  since  organisms  reproduce  their  kind,  each  new 
generation  inherits  those  characteristics  which  enabled 
the  parents  to  live  under  the  given  conditions.  The  rising 
generation  is  consequently  partially  adjusted  before  birth, 
through  heredity,  to  the  given  selective  environment.  If 
the  selective  conditions  remain  static,  the  adjustment 
becomes  more  or  less  complete,  and  the  new-born  is  more 
or  less  perfectly  adapted  to  its  future  abode,  either  through 
well-fixed  reflexes  and  strong  instincts,  or  through  unorgan- 
ized predisposed  capacities  which  may  be  modified  as  the 
conditions  of  life  demand.  The  tendency  of  heredity  is^ 
therefore,  to  equip  the  individual  with  those  character- 
istics which  enable  him  to  survive.  Hence  the  individual, 
through  his  hereditary  equipment,  is  predisposed  to  the 
kind  of  life  determined  by  the  selective  environment  acting 
upon  his  ancestors.  Fish  are  predisposed  to  live  in  water, 
birds  to  Uve  in  the  air. 

When  heredity  is  socially  determined,  as  in  the  case  of 
man,  the  individual  is  thereby  endowed  with  those  im- 
pulsive tendencies  and  mental  traits  requisite  to  survival 
under  social  conditions,  and  predisposed  through  this 
hereditary  equipment  to  the  kind  of  life  determined  by 
society.  Since  one's  ancestors  may  have  been  acted  upon 
century  after  century  by  relatively  the  same  selective 
conditions,  the  individual  is  equipped  by  heredity  with 
the  requisites  of  survival  and  is  predisposed  to  life  as 
determined  by  the  society  of  his  own  people.  The  China- 
man is  predisposed,  for  example,  to  modes  of  Chinese  fife, 
the  Eskimo  to  modes  of  Eskimo  life.  It  is  in  the  fight  of 
this  conclusion  that  the  essentially  social  character  of 
human  nature  is  to  be  understood. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  43 

3.  The  Individual  as  Disposed  hy  Psychical  Environment. 
—  Psychical  environment,  that  is,  the  available  materials  of 
culture,  becomes  a  factor  in  determining  the  life  chosen 
by  the  individual,  in  that  it  supplies  him  with  ideals  and 
with  knowledge  of  how  to  satisfy  his  needs. 

The  real  needs  of  the  individual  may  be  classified  as 
those  arising  from  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  for 
example,  the  need  of  food,  clothing,  and  protection;  as 
those  springing  from  the  impulse  of  race-preservation, 
like  the  longing  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  family  and 
parental  instinct;  as  those  growing  out  of  the  intellectual 
impulse,  such  as  the  thirst  for  knowledge  and  for  intellec- 
tual activity;  as  those  having  their  source  in  the  social 
impulse,  among  which  is  the  desire  for  companionship 
and  intercourse  with  others;  as  those  having  their  basis 
in  the  artistic  impulse,  for  example,  the  yearning  for  the 
beautiful;  and,  finally,  as  those  springing  from  the  moral- 
religious  impulse,  such  as  the  craving  for  a  deeper  insight 
into  the  mysteries  of  self  and  of  God,  a  hunger  for  greater 
self-control,  better  ideals,  and  purer  motives.  These  are 
the  needs  common  to  men  and  felt  by  them  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent. 

A  child  deprived  of  opportunity  to  learn  from  others 
would  gratify  its  wants  much  like  an  animal  or  like  the 
most  primitive  savage.  Such  a  child,  though  born  of 
cultured  American  parents,  would  begin  its  independent 
struggle  for  existence  and  self-realization  even  below  where 
the  offspring  of  the  most  primitive  people  starts;  it  would 
have  as  its  only  resource  certain  impelling  impulses,  certain 
undeveloped  mental  traits,  the  consciousness  of  certain 
wants.  In  reaUty,  however,  the  child  born  into  a  society 
such  as  our  own  finds,  among  our  materials  of  culture,  the 


44        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

accumulated  results  of  centuries  of  experience  in  endeavor- 
ing to  satisfy  the  same  human  needs.  To  it  is  given  in 
custom,  in  institution,  and  in  law  our  conception  of  how 
to  gratify,  in  the  highest  way,  the  wants  arising  from  the 
impulse  of  self-preservation;  as  a  means  of  gratifying  his 
social  needs  there  are  presented  to  him  our  ideas  of  social 
intercourse,  of  social  relations,  and  of  civic  life;  and  as 
an  end  toward  which  he  may  labor  in  giving  expression 
and  direction  to  his  moral-religious  tendencies,  there  is  held 
before  him  the  conception  of  human  attainment  and  per- 
fection cherished  and  safeguarded  by  the  American 
people. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  ideals  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  means  supplied  the  individual  by  psychical  en- 
vironment are  a  powerful  factor  in  determining  his  life. 
Being  schooled  in  the  satisfaction  of  his  wants  according 
to  these  ideals,  before  he  becomes  self-conscious,  and 
upon  obtaining  self-consciousness  being  unable  to  devise 
better  ways,  he  is  disposed  to  accept  them  as  his  own  and 
to  guide  and  direct  his  activities  accordingly.  Imitation 
and  social  sanction  also  work  to  this  end;  for  few  individ- 
uals have  the  originahty  to  question  the  standards  held 
before  them  and  still  fewer  have  the  courage  to  persist  in 
lines  of  action  not  socially  approved. 

In  view  of  the  influences  exerted  upon  the  individual 
by  psychical  environment,  the  mode  of  life  to  which  he 
is  disposed  through  it  becomes  evident,  especially  if  that 
acting  upon  a  particular  individual  is  taken  into  account. 
The  psychical  environment  acting  upon  a  given  individual 
is  that  of  the  society  to  which  he  belongs.  The  indi\ddual 
is  therefore  disposed  to  the  type  of  Hfe  as  revealed  in  the 
ideals  and  made  possible  through  the  means  supplied  by 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  45 

the  materials  of  culture  of  the  society  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  The  German  is  disposed  thereby  to  Ufe  as  found 
in  Germany,  the  American  to  hfe  as  it  exists  in  America. 

4.  The  Aim  of  the  Individual.  —  Being  thus  predisposed 
by  heredity  and  thus  disposed  by  psychical  environment, 
what  is  the  end  or  aim  of  Hfe  that  the  individual  con- 
sciously chooses  as  his  own  and  consciously  endeavors  to 
attain? 

The  aim  of  individual  Hfe,  when  defined  abstractly,  is 
self-realization.  When  expressed  concretely,  such  an  aim 
means  the  reaUzation  in  one's  hfe  of  the  highest  ideals  of 
one's  own  people.  But  does  life  according  to  the  highest 
standards  of  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  member  become 
likewise  the  individual's  idea  of  self-realization,  the  ac- 
cepted and  conscious  goal  of  his  endeavor?  There  is  no 
alternative.  On  the  one  hand,  he  is  unable  of  himself  to 
create  a  single  ideal  worthy  the  name,  to  say  nothing  of  a 
system.  All  that  the  most  gifted  is  able  to  do  is  to  modify, 
add  here  and  there  some  little  increment  to  the  scheme 
held  before  him.  This  of  itself  is  a  task  taxing  every 
resource  of  the  mind,  for  the  ideals  cherished  by  society 
are  the  products  of  ages  upon  ages  of  social  cooperation. 
Being  powerless  to  evolve  a  conception  of  Ufe  worthy 
his  nature,  the  individual  can  but  accept  and  make  his  own 
the  ideals  supplied  him  by  the  social  order  of  which  he  is  a 
part. 

On  the  other  hand,  because  of  the  conditions  of  living  as 
a  human  being,  there  is  no  opportunity  for  the  individual 
to  enjoy  his  own  scheme  of  Hfe,  were  he  able  to  evolve 
such  a  scheme.  There  is  left  him,  for  example,  in  the 
matter  of  occupation  no  choice  except  within  the  Hmits 
sanctioned  by  society.     If  he  transcends  these,  he  is  socially 


46        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ostracized  or  legally  restrained.  Likewise,  there  is  no 
choice  with  reference  to  family  life  except  within  the  con- 
fines of  custom.  Marriage  in  its  legal  aspects  is  clearly 
defined,  and  in  its  higher  ethical  and  spiritual  phases 
crystallized  in  tradition.  Custom  likewise  circumscribes 
forms  of  social  intercourse,  and  tradition  and  law  deter- 
mine specific  modes  of  civic  life.  Infringement  upon  the 
one  calls  forth  the  force  of  public  opinion;  infraction  of  the 
other,  the  condemnation  of  the  court.  Freedom  of  thought, 
freedom  of  speech,  freedom  of  conscience  are  taken  for 
granted  among  highly  civilized  peoples,  but  the  individual 
learns  that  even  here  he  is  bound,  and  that  he  is.  free  only 
within  the  limits  of  social  sanction.  The  individual  is 
thus  circumscribed  in  his  activities  in  every  direction; 
the  range  of  his  choice  is  fijced;  the  ends  he  can  make  his 
own  are  determined  for  him  and  not  by  him. 

Few  normal  individuals  feel  the  restraint  of  either  of 
these  limitations.  This  is  not  strange,  since  the  ultimate 
end  of  society  is  to  promote  the  highest  fife  of  its  members, 
and  since  through  heredity  there  is  bred  into  the  individual 
the  propensities  and  capacities  requisite  to  social  life,  and 
these  are  formed  after  birth,  through  years  of  training,  in 
directions  socially  acceptable.  Being  thus  socially  bred 
and  trained,  the  nature  of  the  normal  individual  expresses 
itself  within  the  limits  prescribed  by  the  social  order  of 
his  people  as  naturally  as  the  duck  takes  to  water,  the 
swallow  to  the  air,  or  the  Norman  horse  to  work,  and  he 
finds  his  aim  of  life  instinctively,  as  it  were,  in  the  ideals 
cherished  by  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

There  are  two  classes,  however,  who  do  not  do  this: 
the  one  is  the  criminal,  the  other  the  genius;  the  one  is 
the  menace,  the  other  the  hope  of  society.    The  criminal, 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  47 

either  because  of  inherited  anti-social  tendencies  or  per- 
verted education,  falls  below  the  standard  of  the  social 
group,  and  he  is  either  exterminated  or  his  influence  re- 
duced to  a  minimum.  Even  in  the  criminal  class,  the 
given  individual  accepts  in  the  main  the  scheme  of  hfc 
imposed.  For  it  is  only  in  one  or  in  a  few  particulars 
that  he  is  in  opposition  and  comes  into  conflict  with  social 
demands.  | 

Just  as  the  criminal  falls  below  the  requirements  of 
society,  the  genius  rises  above  and  creates  new  conceptions 
socially  acceptable.  But  even  the  genius  finds  in  the  main 
his  aim  of  life  in  the  ideals  of  his  people,  for  at  most  he  is 
able  to  initiate  reforms  in  only  one  or  two  directions. 

If,  then,  the  criminal  and  the  genius  are  excepted,  — 
and  this  cannot  be  wholly  done,  —  it  may  be  said  that  the 
normal  individual,  bred  and  determined  as  he  is,  finds  his 
conception  of  self-realization  expressed  in  the  highest 
ideals  of  life  held  by  the  social  order  of  which  he  is  a  part, 
and  that  life  according  to  these  ideals  becomes  the  accepted 
and  conscious  goal  of  his  endeavor. 

5.  The  Self-Realization  Attainable  to  the  Individual.  — 
Since  the  individual  has  no  other  choice  than  to  accept 
the  scheme  held  before  him  by  the  social  whole  of  which 
he  is  a  part,  it  follows  that  the  ideals  or  ends  of  life  which 
the  individual  may  choose  as  his  own,  and  consequently 
the  self-realization  attainable  by  him,  is  conditioned  by 
society.  Since  the  individual  cannot  live  as  a  human 
being  apart  from  society,  he  attains  his  highest  self-realiza- 
tion, therefore,  when  he  lives  the  fullest  and  richest  life 
made  possible  by  the  social  order  of  which  he  is  a  member. 
The  German  thus  attains  his  highest  self-realization  when 
he  accepts  and  makes  his  own  the  highest  ideals  sanctioned 


48        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

by  Germany,  the  American  when  he  embodies  in  his  life 
the  best  cherished  by  the  American  people. 

6.  The  Relation  of  Society  to  the  Aim  of  the  Individual. 
—  The  relation  of  society  to  the  aim  of  Hfe  held  by  the 
individual  is  therefore  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  society, 
by  acting  upon  him  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  his 
ancestors,  predisposes  him  to  social  life  in  general  and,  by 
acting  upon  him  directly  through  materials  of  culture  or 
psychical  environment,  disposes  him  to  the  type  of  life 
approved  by  the  social  order  of  which  the  given  materials 
of  culture  or  psychical  environment  is  an  expression;  it 
is  also  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that,  through  supplying 
him  with  the  only  worthy  conception  of  life  and  through 
constraining  him  to  accept  this  conception  as  his  own,  it 
conditions  the  goal  of  his  endeavor  and  the  Hfe  attainable 
to  him. 

§  6.  The  Reciprocal  Relation  Between  Society 
AND  THE  Individual 

From  our  present  vantage  ground  it  becomes  evident 
that  the  individual  and  society  are  not  distinct  phenomena, 
but  that  each  impHes  the  other.  The  individual  conditions, 
as  we  have  seen,  the  existence  of  society,  while  society 
conditions  the  existence  of  the  individual.  Social  develop- 
ment is  dependent  upon  the  individual,  but  with  equal 
truth  his  development  is  dependent  upon  society.  The 
individual  determines  on  the  one  hand  the  end  of  society, 
but  on  the  other  society  determines  the  aim  of  individual 
Hfe.  Each  thus  conditions  and  determines  the  existence, 
development,  and  aim  of  the  other.  It  is  this  reciprocal 
relationship  that  is  impHed  in  the  expression,  "No  indi- 
vidual without  society,  no  society  without  the  individual." 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  49 

§  7.  Educational  Inferences 

The  foregoing  studies  of  the  reciprocal  relation  between 
the  individual  and  society  were  undertaken  that  insight 
might  be  gained  for  the  practical  work  of  the  school.  The 
educational  implications  of  the  knowledge  gained  can  be 
best  understood  if  first  put  in  the  form  of  inferences. 

1 .  Welfare  of  Society  the  Interest  of  tJie  Individual.  —  Since 
the  existence  or  mode  of  life,  the  development,  and  ends 
attainable  to  the  individual  are  conditioned  by  society,  the 
individual  is  interested  in  the  continuation,  development, 
and  perfection  of  the  social  order  of  which  he  is  a  part. 

2.  Welfare  of  the  Individual  the  Interest  of  Society.  —  Since 
the  existence,  development,  and  perfection  of  society  is 
conditioned  by  the  individual,  society  is  interested  in  the 
highest  mode  of  life,  the  highest  development  and  self- 
realization  of  its  members. 

3.  Education  an  Interest  of  both  the  Individual  and  So- 
ciety. —  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  Hfe  and  develop- 
ment of  both  the  individual  and  society  are  conditioned 
by  education.  The  individual  on  the  one  hand  is  therefore 
not  only  interested  in  a  system  of  education  which  will 
foster  h' j  own  highest  development  and  self-reahzation, 
but  also  in  a  system  which  will  further  the  existence, 
development,  and  perfection  of  the  society  of  which  he  is 
a  part.  Society  on  the  other  hand  is  not  only  interested 
in  a  system  of  education  which  will  foster  its  own  existence, 
development,  and  perfection,  but  also  in  a  system  which 
will  provide  for  the  highest  mode  of  Hfe,  the  highest  de- 
velopment and  self-realization  of  its  members.     ♦ 

4.  Educalio7i  Conditioned  by  Social  Needs.  —  Since  the 
mode   of   hfe,    development,    and   self-reahzation   of   the 


so       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

individual  is  determined  by  society,  and  the  continuance 
and  improvement  of  the  social  order  is  conditioned  by  the 
individual,  a  given  society  can  provide  for  its  existence, 
development,  and  perfection,  and  thereby  provide  for 
fulfilling  its  function  with  reference  to  the  individual  only, 
through  so  educating  him  that  he  is  able  to  enter  into  the 
given  social  hfe  and  become  a  factor  in  its  continuation 
and  improvement.  Hence  education  is  a  function  of 
society,  and  a  system  of  education  which  seeks  to  provide 
for  the  existence,  development,  and  perfection  of  a  given 
social  whole,  must  promote  the  development  and  self- 
reahzation  of  the  individual,  but  this  development  and 
self-realization,  this  education,  must  be  conditioned  by 
the  needs  of  the  given  society  as  these  are  in  turn  con- 
ditioned by  its  function. 

5.  Highest  Interests  of  the  Individual  Conserved  by  Edii- 
cation  Socially  Determined.  —  Since  the  mode  of  hfe,  the 
development,  and  self-realization  attainable  to  the  indi- 
vidual are  conditioned  by  society,  that  education  which 
prepares  the  individual  to  enter  into  a  given  social  order 
and  to  become  a  factor  in  its  preservation  and  perfection 
is  at  the  same  time  the  education  which  prepares  him  for 
the  highest  mode  of  life,  the  highest  development  and 
self-reaHzation  attainable  to  him. 

§  8.  Educational  Principles 

If  the  import  of  these  inferences  is  now  generalized,  we 
have  the  following  universally  apphcable  principles  of 
education: 

I.  Education  is  a  function  of  society,  and  the  educa- 
tional system  of  a  given  society  must  be  such  as  will  provide 
for  its  existence,  development,  and  perfection. 


SOCIETY  AND  THE  INDIVIDUAL  51 

2.  That  system  of  education  which  provides  for  the 
existence,  development,  and  perfection  of  a  given  society 
is  at  the  same  time  the  system  which  provides  for  the 
highest  mode  of  life,  the  highest  development  and  self- 
realization  of  its  members. 

Readings 

Fiske,  Destiny  of  Man,  pp.  42-103. 
Ross,  Social  Control,  pp.  1-40. 

Foundations  of  Sociology,  pp.  327-348. 
Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  pp.  260-268. 
Belts,  Social  Principles  of  Ediication,  pp.  5-22. 
Baldwin,  The  Individual  and  Society,  pp.  Tj-iiy. 
Abbot,  The  Rights  of  Man,  pp.  62-193. 
Butler,  The  Meaning  of  Ediication,  pp.  1-17. 
Kidd,  Social  Evolution,  pp.  264-275. 
MacCunn,  The  Making  of  Character,  pp.  1-7. 
Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  pp.  47-65,  77-79. 
Muirhead,  The  Elements  of  Ethics,  pp.  155-162. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  NATURE  OF  THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD 

§  I.  The  Problem 

^  The  individual  who  lives  up  to  the  highest*^  and  best 
in  the  life  of  his  people  is  for  all  human  purposes  the  per- 
fected individual,  the  educated  in  the  broadest  sense  of 
the  term.  The  educated  person  as  thus  characterized  is 
obviously  a  very  different  being  from  the  new-bom  babe. 
The  former  has  attained  the  degree  of  development  and 
self-realization  possible  to  him  under  the  given  social 
conditions,  the  latter  merely  has  tendencies  and  capacities 
to  be  developed  in  ways  that  are  socially  approved. 

The  question  arises:  How  is  the  child  educated?  What- 
ever answer  is  given,  it  will  be  granted  that  education  is 
conditioned,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  nature  of  the  psychi- 
cal life  of  the  individual.  There  is  involved,  therefore, 
in  the  work  of  education  a  study  of  the  psychical  Hfe  of 
the  child,  if  we  are  to  know  how  to  foster  and  control  his 
development. 

§  2.  The  Aspects  of  Psychical  Life 

I.  The  Two  Divisions.  —  The  psychical  life  of  the  child 
is  generally  viewed  as  manifesting  itself  under  three  aspects: 
the  intellect,  feeling,  and  will.  Though  this  is  the  division 
accepted  in  the  main  and  found  in  our  present-day  text- 
books upon  psychology,  it  is  a  comparatively  modern  view. 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  53 

The  earlier  division  was  a  dual  one,  that  is,  all  psychical 
phenomena  were  grouped  as  expressions  of  the  intellect 
and  of  the  will. 

Feeling  is  not,  however,  ignored  by  those  psychologists 
who  hold  to  the  dual  division.  They  maintain  that  feehng, 
except  upon  the  very  highest  level  of  psychical  develop- 
ment, cannot  be  separated  from  the  will,  and  that  all  feel- 
ing —  other  than  of  pleasure  and  pain  —  has  its  seat  in 
the  will  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  an  expression  and 
part  of  it. 

2.  The  Position  of  the  Teacher.  —  Though  a  triple  classi- 
fication of  psychical  phenomena  may  be  favorable  to 
descriptive  psychology,  it  is  not  so  for  the  work  of  the 
teacher.  Even  were  the  weight  of  evidence  not  on  the  side 
of  a  dual  grouping,  the  position  of  psychologists  upon  the 
culture  of  the  emotions  makes  possible  its  acceptance  in 
education,  as  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  culture  of  the 
emotions  depends  on  the  one  hand  upon  intellectual  and 
on  the  other  upon  will  development.  Consequently,  in 
the  work  of  the  school  the  culture  of  the  emotions,  apart 
from  that  of  the  intellect  and  will,  may  be  ignored.  This 
is,  however,  not  to  be  taken  to  imply  that  the  development 
of  the  emotions  is  not  of  importance;  it  merely  means 
that  their  normal  culture  is  a  necessary  result  and  part 
of  normal  intellectual  and  will  development. 

The  teacher  may,  therefore,  without  doing  \aolence  to 
any  psychological  theory,  regard  the  psychical  life  of  the 
child  as  having  but  two  aspects,  that  of  the  intellect  and 
that  of  the  will.  The  grounds  for  accepting  this  division 
and  its  advantages  for  education  will  become  manifest  as 
we  proceed. 


54       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

§  3.  The  Will 

1.  Meaning  of  Will.  —  The  conception  of  the  will  which 
students  of  education  find  most  helpful  is  gained  from 
considering  it  in  relation  to  life.  When  thus  regarded  the 
will  is  that  aspect  of  life  which  prompts  to  action.  In 
the  lower  animals,  the  will  excites  to  activities  related  to 
the  existence  and  preservation  of  the  organism  and  to 
reproduction.  In  the  higher  orders,  and  especially  in  man, 
it  impels  not  only  to  activities  related  to  the  fulfillment 
of  these  functions  but  also  to  activities  conducive  to  the 
enjoyment  of  other  phases  of  human  Ufe.  Every  organism 
thus  strives  to  hve  the  Hfe  to  which  it  is  predestined  by 
its  nature.  The  will  is  consequently  to  be  identified  with 
our  inherited  tendencies,  and  may  be  defined  as  Ufe  in 
its  dynamic  aspect,  or  as  a  system  of  impulses  arising 
from  inherited  propensities. 

To  vary  Hfe  in  its  essential  characteristics  is  to  vary 
the  will.  Because  of  this  relation  between  the  will  and 
life,  the  will  of  the  amceba  is  one  thing,  that  of  the  butter- 
fly another,  and  that  of  man  still  another.  The  will  is 
consequently  not  something  apart  from  Hfe;  it  is  hfe  in 
so  far  as  this  manifests  itself  in  impulse. 

2.  The  Elements  of  the  Will.  —  Impulse,  as  regarded  by 
psychologists,  is  so  closely  connected,  on  the  one  hand, 
with  instinct  that  instincts  are  often  called  impulses,  and 
on  the  other,  it  is  so  closely  identified  with  desire  that 
desire  is  defined  as  impulse  associated  with  a  conscious 
end.  We  have,  then,  in  impulse  a  term  employed  not 
only  to  include  those  tendencies  known  as  instincts,  but 
employed  also  to  designate  the  basis  of  desire. 

We  would  not  only  characterize  the  elements  of  the 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  55 

will  as  impulses,  but  as  primal  impulses.  By  thus  desig- 
nating its  elements,  we  not  only  associate  them  with  those 
inherited  characteristics  which  constitute  the  foundations 
of  human  nature,  but  identify  the  will  with  those  per- 
manent tendencies  which  arise  from  these  characteristics 
and  which,  when  once  they  have  made  their  appearance, 
exert  their  influence  upon  Hfe  at  every  later  period. 

Although  often  regarded  as  being  the  same,  a  primal 
impulse  is  to  be  distinguished  from  an  instinct.  An  in- 
stinct arises,  to  be  sure,  out  of  an  inherited  characteristic, 
and  in  this  sense  it  is  an  impulse.  An  instinct,  however, 
may  be  transitory,  it  may  be  inhibited,  or  it  may  be  buried 
in  a  consciously  formed  habit  and  lose  its  impelHng  force. 
Not  so  with  a  primal  impulse:  it  arises  out  of  a  basic 
predisposition  and  is  consequently  permanent;  it  does  not 
vanish  nor  can  it  be  wholly  inhibited.  A  primal  impulse 
may,  of  course,  be  subordinated  and  transformed,  be 
crystallized  in  habit,  but  it  never  entirely  loses  its  force 
of  propulsion.  It  is  preferable,  therefore,  to  view  instincts 
as  specialized  expressions  of  primal  impulses,  as  the  special 
forms  in  which  impulses  manifest  themselves.  Fear,  for 
example,  is  an  instinct,  and  this  mode  of  emotional  reaction 
serves  as  a  protective  agency.  But  the  congenital  tendency 
of  creatures  to  conserve  their  existence  is  a  primal  impulse, 
and  fear  is  only  one  of  the  manifestations  of  this  tendency. 
Anger  and  the  fighting  instinct  may  be  similarly  resolved. 
Any  one  or  all  of  these  instincts  may  disappear,  but  the 
primary  tendency  of  the  organism  to  act  with  reference 
to  its  preservation  remains.  In  like  manner  are  all  in- 
stincts to  be  regarded  and  interpreted. 
:  The  primal  impulses,  constituting  the  elements  of  the 
will,  are  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  the  impulse  of 


S6       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

race-preservation,  the  impulse  of  sociality,  the  intellectual 
impulse,  the  artistic  impulse,  and  the  moral-religious 
impulse. 

3.  Characterization  of  the  Elements  of  the  Will. — To 
make  clear  the  nature  and  character  of  the  human  will, 
there  is  need  to  characterize  each  of  its  elements. 

(a)  The  impulse  of  self-preservation.  —  The  existence 
of  the  impulse  of  self-preservation  cannot  be  questioned, 
and  that  it  is  the  basic  one  of  sentient  creatures  is  little 
doubted.  For,  of  what  value  would  it  be  to  an  organism 
to  be  endowed  with  all  that  is  implied,  especially  in  self- 
conscious  Hfe,  were  it  not  moved  by  a  deep-rooted  ten- 
dency to  sustain  and  protect  itself? 

Because  of  its  importance,  the  impulse  of  self-preserva- 
tion is  the  oldest  propensity  of  human  nature,  and  the 
first  to  make  its  appearance  in  the  life  of  the  child.  During 
a  considerable  period  it  is  the  dominating  impulse,  and  it 
is  questionable  whether  its  potency  decreases  much  as 
the  child  advances  in  years.  Other  tendencies  may  exert 
their  influence  for  a  time,  then  be  deadened,  overridden, 
and  almost  trodden  out,  but  it  is  impossible  to  do  this 
with  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  the  majority  of  individuals.  For,  even  when  through 
long  periods  of  suffering  and  misfortune  Hfe  seems  no 
longer  worth  Hving,  the  slightest  change  in  circumstances 
will  restore  this  impulse  with  its  persistent  power,  and  life 
again  becomes  dear  and  worthy  of  every  struggle.  Like- 
wise, when  through  education  and  discipline  the  impulse 
of  self-preservation  seems  to  have  been  brought  into 
subjection,  in  an  instant  it  will  break  all  bonds  and  trans- 
form a  cultured  audience  imperiled  by  fire  into  a  horde  of 
frantic  beasts.^  Though  in  dehberative  action  other  im- 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  57 

pulses  may  control,  in  all  sudden  emergencies  of  life  where 
danger  is  involved  and  impulse  rather  than  reason  rules, 
it  is  nearly  always  the  impulse  of  self-preservation  that 
determines  action. 

The  function  of  this  impulse  is  to  guarantee  the  exist- 
ence of  life.  Impelled  by  it,  every  creature  instinctively 
seeks  to  sustain  and  protect  itself,  and  its  own  preserva- 
tion becomes  as  a  rule  the  first  interest  of  every  organism. 
Its  function  is  fulfilled  through  exciting  two  distinct  Hues 
of  activity:  the  one  has  to  do  with  nutrition,  the  other 
with  protection.  The  one  line  of  activity  supplies  the 
materials  for  the  sustenance  of  life,  the  other  sliields  the 
organism  from  influences  that  might  prove  destructive. 
Each  of  these  Hnes  of  activity  is  excited  by  special  man- 
ifestations of  the  impulse  in  the  form  of  particular  instincts. 
Those  activities  serving  as  protective  arc  excited  by  self- 
love,  fear,  anger,  and  pugnacity,  whereas  activities  that 
have  to  do  with  sustenance  are  stimulated  by  hunger  and 
cold. 

In  connection  with  this  impulse,  there  are  certain  re- 
lated instincts  which  also  impel  to  acts  of  self-preservation. 
Though  other  impulses  have  had  a  part  in  their  rise,  that 
of  self-preservation  has  been  the  most  influential.  Among 
the  most  important  of  these  related  instincts  are  self- 
ishness, emulation,  ambition,  rivalry,  constructiveness, 
and  acquisitiveness,  or  the  collecting  instinct. 

The  significance,  for  the  life  of  the  individual  and  for 
that  of  society,  of  the  impulse  of  self-preservation  with 
its  varied  forms  of  expression  and  related  instincts  can 
scarcely  be  over-estimated.  On  the  part  of  the  individual, 
it  gives  color  and  bias  to  his  whole  fife.  It  Hcs  at  the  basis 
of  his  combativeness,  selfishness,  and  so-called  egotism. 


5^        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Still  more  important  is  the  fact  that,  in  the  form  of  hunger 
and  cold,  it  dooms  the  individual  to  a  perpetual  struggle 
for  subsistence  and  to  a  life  of  labor  and  of  practical  activ- 
ity, while  the  satisfaction  of  the  needs  arising  from  hunger 
and  cold  becomes  one  of  the  strongest  motives  dominating 
human  action. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  impulse  of  self-preservation 
has  deep  sociological  import.  Through  conditioning  in 
large  measure  the  life  activities  of  the  individual,  it  de- 
termines to  a  considerable  degree  both  the  form  and 
structure  of  society.  It  has  given  rise  to  the  larger  part 
of  industry,  also  to  modes  of  protection  to  life  and  to 
property.  Indeed,  only  as  certain  of  the  phases  of  society 
are  viewed  with  reference  to  protection  and  nutrition  is 
the  reason  for  their  existence  and  their  function  to  be 
understood,  and  only  as  the  relation  between  these  and 
the  human  needs  arising  from  this  impulse  is  grasped  is 
it  possible  to  appreciate  the  direction  that  this  element 
of  the  will  must  be  given  in  the  education  of  the  young, 
and  to  appreciate  the  source  and  character  of  certain 
materials  that  must  be  used  in  giving  it  appropriate  ex- 
pression and  determination. 

(b)  The  impulse  of  race-preservation.  —  By  the  impulse 
of  race-preservation  is  meant  the  sex-instinct  and  those 
instincts  directly  related  to  it,  such  as  love  in  its  different 
forms.  This  impulse  is  found  in  all  but  the  lowest  orders 
of  sentient  life,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  it  does  not 
manifest  itself  even  there. 

The  function  of  the  impulse  of  race-preservation  is  to 
stimulate  the  organism  to  the  reproduction  and  preserva- 
tion of  its  kind.  In  its  simplest  expression,  for  example, 
among  insects,  frogs,  and  fish  it  excites  merely  to  repro- 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  59 

duction,  but  in  the  higher  orders,  such  as  birds,  monkeys, 
and  men  it  impels  also  to  the  nourishment,  protection, 
and  education  of  offspring. 

This  impulse  does  not  appear  in  human  beings  until 
about  the  twelfth  year.  Of  its  manifestations,  the  first  to 
arise  is  the  sex-instinct,  which  reveals  itself  in  a  growing 
fondness  for  association  with  the  opposite  sex.  Upon 
the  heels  of  this  stalks  romantic  love,  and  the  impulse  to 
estabhsh  a  home.  Closely  related  to  these  is  the  parental 
instinct  which  fills  the  heart  with  a  longing  for  children. 
With  the  advent  of  children,  there  comes  parental  love 
and  love  of  kindred.  These  give  rise  on  the  part  of  the 
mother  to  patience,  carefulness,  tenderness,  sympathy, 
and  self-sacrifice,  and  on  the  part  of  the  father  to  courage, 
strength,  industry,  manliness,  and  self-reliance.  When 
the  impulse  of  race-preservation  thus  once  appears,  it  never 
disappears,  for  in  some  form  or  other  it  continues  to  sweep 
the  individual  into  relations  from  which  he  cannot  escape, 
but  which  bring  to  the  human  heart  the  most  precious 
experiences  of  life. 

Although  each  primal  impulse  has  its  distinctive  charac- 
teristics, they  are  not  isolated  psychic  forces,  but  are 
reciprocally  related  and  conditioned  both  in  their  evo- 
lution and  in  the  exercise  of  their  compulsion.  The  im- 
pulse of  race-preservation  illustrates  this.  On  the  one 
hand,  this  impulse  is  closely  related  to  that  of  self-preser- 
vation and  exerts  thereupon  a  restraining  and  refining 
influence.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand how  its  higher  expressions  add  strength  both  to  the 
impulse  of  sociality  and  to  the  artistic  impulse.  As  an 
evidence  of  the  latter,  love  in  some  one  of  its  forms  con- 
stitutes the  chief  and  never-dying  theme  of  music,  poetry, 


6o        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

and  other  fine  arts.  The  connection  between  religion  and 
the  sex-instinct  is  also  close  and  has  been  of  late  a  favorite 
topic  with  writers  upon  adolescence.  In  a  similar  way, 
the  relation  of  each  of  the  primal  impulses  to  the  others 
might  be  traced. 

Returning  to  the  impulse  of  race-preservation,  its  indi- 
vidual and  social  imphcations  tax  the  resources  of  the 
imagination.  On  the  side  of  the  former,  as  an  expression 
of  one  of  the  vital  functions  of  Kfe,  it  hes  at  the  basis  of 
certain  of  the  physical  and  psychical  differences  between 
the  sexes.  It  is  also  the  source  of  one  of  the  strongest 
and  most  revolutionaryfeorces  playing  upon  the  individual, 
a  force  sufficiently  stnong  to  redeem  him  from  himself 
and  to  turn  him  in  the  direction  of  cooperation  and  al- 
truism. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  foundation  of  the 
family,  an  important  factor  in  the  social  order  as  seen 
in  the  clan,  tribe,  or  in  democratic  society,  and  it  con- 
tributes no  small  part  to  the  instrumentalities  of  culture. 
Both  its  individual  and  social  implications  are  thus  sum- 
marized by  Haeckel,^  "We  glorify  love  as  the  source  of 
the  most  splendid  creations  of  art;  of  the  noblest  pro- 
ductions of  poetry,  of  plastic  art,  and  of  music;  we  rever- 
ence in  it  the  most  powerful  factor  in  human  civiliza- 
tion, the  basis  of  family  hfe,  and,  consequently,  of  the 
development  of  the  state." 

(c)  The  impulse  of  sociality.  —  Man  as  now  known  is  a 
social  animal.  Wherever  found  he  Hves  in  small  groups 
of  two  or  more  families,  and  wherever  two  or  more  fami- 
lies roam  over  the  same  land,  they  have  more  or  less 
friendly  relations  with  other  similar  groups  of  the  same 
region,  meeting  with  them  for  council,  defense,  religious 
^  Haeckel,  The  Evolution  of  Man,  Vol.  ii,  p.  394. 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  6i 

ceremonies,  or  amusement.  That  savage  man  is  almost 
always  at  war  with  adjacent  tribes  is  no  argument  against 
his  instinctive  social  nature,  as  the  social  impulse  never 
extends  to  all  individuals  of  the  same  species.  Witness 
present-day  antipathy  between  the  white  and  the  black. 
Whether  man  was  originally  a  social  creature  and  whether 
his  social  disposition  is  acquired  is  not  the  important  point; 
the  fact  remains  that  as  known  to  anthropology,  psychol- 
ogy, and  sociology  he  is  social.  So  general  is  the  presence 
of  the  impulse  of  sociality  that  the  recluse  or  hermit  is 
regarded  as  abnormal. 

This  impulse  is  deep-rooted  and,  after  those  of  self- 
and  race-preservation,  is  the  strongest  propensity  of  human 
nature.  It  is  felt  in  the  disHke  for  soHtude  and  in  the 
longing  for  companionship  beyond  that  of  the  family 
circle.  When  isolation  is  temporarily  enforced,  the  desire 
for  human  association  becomes  a  passion,  and  the  slightest 
sign  of  human  presence  is  heralded  with  dehght.  Its 
strength  is  revealed  in  Darwin's  story  of  three  Patagonians 
who  preferred  being  shot  rather  than  to  betray  the  plans 
of  their  companions  in  war;  so  strong  is  this  fellow-feeling 
in  civilized  man,  that  he  instinctively  risks  his  own  to  save 
the  life  of  a  fellow  creature,  though  he  be  a  total  stranger, 
and  to  its  titanic  strength  is  due  in  large  measure  the 
fascination  of  the  crowd,  the  charm  of  the  city,  and  the 
solidarity  of  society. 

Though  the  social  impulse  prompts  to  activities  favor- 
able to  procuring  food,  to  providing  defense,  and  to  securing 
care  for  the  young,  it  does  not  fulfill  its  function  in  thus 
contributing  directly  to  the  maintenance  of  the  physical 
life  of  the  individual  and  of  the  race.  It  fulfills  its  function 
more  particularly  through  making  possible  a  higher  spirit- 


62        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ual  existence.  In  isolation,  the  individual  is  weak  and 
unable  by  his  own  efforts  to  attain  the  development  of 
which  he  is  susceptible;  impelled  by  the  impulse  of  sociahty, 
he  associates  with  his  fellowmen  and  cooperates  with  them. 
Life  is  thereby  brought  into  touch  with  Kfe,  the  strength, 
experience,  and  insight  of  all  are  placed  at  the  service  of 
each,  and  not  only  is  the  way  to  higher  life  opened,  but  also 
the  way  to  positive  achievement  in  economic  and  artistic 
production,  in  the  increase  of  knowledge  and  of  culture. 

The  impulse  of  sociality  first  manifests  itself  in  the  hfe 
of  the  child  in  the  form  of  gregariousness,  which  may  be 
observed  as  early  as  the  seventh  week,  when  the  babe 
shows  pleasure  in  the  presence  of  others.  A  somewhat 
later  expression  is  sympathy,  which  appears  at  about  the 
middle  of  the  second  year  and  which  is  extended  in  the 
beginning  more  particularly  to  those  of  the  same  age. 
At  about  ten  or  twelve,  there  appears  the  "group  instinct," 
accompanied  by  the  formation  of  cliques  and  clubs  like  the 
"North  Siders,"  "South  Siders,"  "East  Enders,"  "West 
Enders."  This  is  closely  followed  by  what  Mr.  Pearson 
calls  the  "socialistic  instinct,"  when  the  welfare  of  the 
society  of  which  the  growing  youth  is  r.  member  becomes 
of  interest  to  him.  Finally,  with  the  approach  of  middle 
adolescence,  there  appears  the  "humanistic  instinct," 
which  binds  the  youth  to  all  humanity  and  causes  him  to 
feel  that  the  nations  of  the  world  ought  to  be  one  federa- 
tion working  in  harmony  for  the  elevation  of  the  race. 

On  the  side  of  the  individual,  this  impulse  is  the  source 
of  those  tendencies  inclining  him  to  cooperative  life  and 
of  those  emotions  which  exert  a  restraining  influence  upon 
both  the  impulse  of  self-  and  of  race-preservation  and  re- 
fine human  relations  outside  the  family,  and  from  it  spring 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  67, 

those  acts  that  the  world  calls  morally  beautiful.  With- 
out the  impulse  of  sociality,  the  individual  would  be  dis- 
posed to  be  indifferent  to  all  save  himself  and  to  what  he 
might  call  his  family,  and  there  would  be  lost  to  him  those 
motives  for  action  arising  from  sympathy,  social  interest, 
and  humanitarianism,  also  the  products  of  cooperative  life 
so  essential  to  his  development.  On  the  part  of  society, 
this  impulse  lies  at  its  foundation,  and  although  it  is  not 
the  only  impulse  contributing  to  social  life,  it  is  the  chief 
one.  It  has  strengthened  cooperative  endeavor,  facilitated 
the  rise  of  industry  and  the  division  of  labor,  fostered 
forms  of  human  intercourse,  and  rendered  possible  the 
development  of  mighty  peoples  homogeneous  in  thought, 
feehng,  and  ideals. 

{d)  The  intellectual  impulse.  —  The  intellectual  impulse 
is  not  so  strong  as  the  impulses  considered  above.  Its 
force  is  felt,  however,  by  all,  and  in  its  highest  form  — 
the  love  of  truth — it  becomes  the  dominant  passion  of  some. 

The  intellect  as  such  does  not  imply  the  existence  of 
an  impelling  force  prompting  to  its  use;  the  incentive  for 
this  arises,  at  least  in  part,  from  other  impulses  as  they 
manifest  themselves  in  wants.  These,  however,  supply 
no  mot;'  .e  for  mental  labor  when  there  is  no  practical 
necessity.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  function  of  the 
intellectual  impulse  becomes  apparent,  as  it  supplies  the 
force  that  impels  to  mental  effort  even  when  there  is  no 
practical  need  to  satisfy,  and  even  when  the  utiUty  of 
the  endeavor  is  not  evident.  The  individual  is  thereby 
led  to  make  discoveries  which  unexpectedly  prove  valuable, 
and  he  is  thus  fitted  in  advance  for  the  satisfaction  of  his 
wants  and  fore-prepared  to  meet  the  difficulties  of  life. 
The   intellectual   impulse   fulfills   its   function,    therefore, 


64       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

when  it  prompts  to  intellectual  endeavor  which  may 
ultimately  minister  to  human  need. 

The  first  manifestation  of  the  intellectual  impulse  is 
the  "appetite  of  the  senses"  —  the  mere  delight  in  sen- 
sation. The  force  is  independent  of  whatever  influence 
the  simple  present  needs  of  the  infant  may  exert,  and 
through  it  the  child  is  constrained  almost  from  birth  to 
handle,  taste,  smell,  and  explore  every  object  coming 
within  his  grasp  or  within  the  range  of  his  vision.  In  this 
way  he  gains  control  of  his  senses  and  comes  to  coordinate 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  lays  the  basis  of  his  future 
knowledge  of  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  common 
objects. 

Closely  related  to  the  "appetite  of  the  senses"  is  curios- 
ity. Curiosity  impels  toward  the  new,  and  leads  the  child 
into  regions  beyond  the  circle  of  his  immediate  needs. 
He  is  thereby  equipped  against  the  future;  for  knowledge 
gained  in  an  idle  moment  may  forearm  him  to  meet  some 
emergency  which  otherwise  might  inflict  pain  or  prove 
his  destruction,  or  a  series  of  pleasant  experiences  or  acci- 
dental discoveries  may  open  to  him  a  new  world  of  pleasure 
and  a  future  field  of  labor. 

Akin  to  curiosity  is  the  love  of  truth.  It  is  this  form 
of  the  impulse  that  dominates  the  scientist,  the  poet,  and 
the  philosopher,  and  leads  to  scientific  discoveries,  poetic 
and  philosophic  creations.  Yet,  in  the  economy  of  the 
world,  most  of  these  creations  prove  to  have  as  far-reaching 
practical  value  as  if  they  were  pursued  alone  in  the  view 
of  utihtarian  ends. 

Perhaps  no  other  manifestation  of  the  intellectual 
impulse  has  been  so  much  discussed  and  so  extolled  as 
imitation.    So  fundamental  to  the  mental  life  of  the  child 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  65 

is  it,  that  James ^  holds,  "His  whole  educability  and  in  fact 
the  whole  history  of  civilization  depends  upon  this  trait." 
Exaggerated  as  this  estimate  of  the  importance  of  imita- 
tion may  be,  as  an  instinctive  tendency  to  act  in  a  manner 
similar  to  others  it  is  undoubtedly  a  perpetual  spur  to 
mental  effort.    To  be  associated  with  imitation  is  play. 

The  intellectual  impulse,  by  reason  of  its  characteristics, 
supplies,  on  the  one  hand,  the  primary  conditions  for  the 
formal  education  of  the  child.  It  tends  also  to  transform 
the  physical  world,  to  a  greater  extent  than  would  other- 
wise be  the  case  under  the  sole  stimulus  of  practical  need, 
into  an  object  of  interest  and  thereby  furnishes  additional 
motive  for  scientific  investigation;  it  likewise  tends  to 
make  man  himself,  his  possibilities,  and  his  destiny,  more  an 
object  of  study,  and  thus  adds  increased  incentive  to  poetic 
production  and  philosophic  speculation;  it  also  opens  to 
him  one  of  the  greatest  fields  of  human  labor  —  the  dis- 
covery and  dissemination  of  truth.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  intellectual  impulse  contributes  materially  to  social 
existence  and  improvement.  For  it  lies  at  the  basis  of  the 
purely  intellectual  and  cultural  activities  and  institutions 
of  society,  such  as  museums,  and  literary,  historical,  and 
scientific  associations,  and  it  is  no  small  factor  in  all  that 
is  included  under  the  term,  "the  press." 

(e)  The  artistic  impulse.  —  The  artistic  impulse  is  to 
be  identified  with  our  instinctive  appreciation  of  beauty, 
A  distinction  must  be  made,  of  course,  between  the  im- 
pulse and  what  is  regarded  as  beautiful.  For,  although 
there  are  no  universally  recognized  standards  of  beauty, 
all  peoples  appreciate  the  beauty  of  some  things  and  create 
what  to  them  is  beautiful. 

^  James,  Psychology,  Vol.  ii,  pp.  408-409. 


66        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

The  utility  of  the  artistic  impulse  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
prompts  the  individual  to  activities  beneficial  to  himself 
and  to  others.  The  fine  arts,  particularly  in  their  earli- 
est development,  served  this  end.  Dancing,  poetry,  and 
music,  arising  from  the  instinctive  appreciation  of  beauty 
and  from  the  tendency  to  act  so  as  to  attract  others,  were, 
on  the  one  hand,  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  individual, 
and  on  the  other,  a  medium  of  inculcating  common  thoughts 
and  feehngs,  common  ideals  and  habits,  all  of  which  con- 
served higher  modes  of  social  Hfe  and  contributed  to  the 
welfare  of  both  the  individual  and  the  race. 

This  appreciation  of  beauty  and  this  tendency  to  act  in 
ways  attractive  to  others  fostered  also  the  ornamentation 
of  the  person  and  of  related  things,  such  as  weapons,  tools, 
and  utensils;  strength,  too,  was  added  to  the  custom 
through  these  decorations  serving  as  signs  of  communi- 
cation and  distinction  and  as  means  of  inspiring  fear. 

Architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting  had  a  like  origin, 
springing  from  the  pleasure  the  individual  derived  from 
their  creation  and  contemplation,  and  from  his  effort  to 
attract  those  in  position  and  power,  or  to  honor  and  ap- 
pease some  departed  spirit.  In  the  hands  of  those  in 
authority,  these  came  later  to  be  employed  as  instruments 
to  increase  their  prestige  and  power,  while  with  the  clergy 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting  served  as  a  means 
of  teaching  truth,  of  moulding  sentiment,  and  of  inspiring 
respect  and  obedience. 

Such  is  the  general  utility  of  the  artistic  impulse.  Its 
function,  in  view  of  its  utihty,  is  therefore  to  enrich  the 
life  of  the  individual,  and  to  promote  higher  forms  of 
social  life.  By  rendering  the  individual  appreciative  of 
beauty,  it  increases  the  volume  of  his  pleasure  and  exposes 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  67 

him  to  cultural  influences;  while  under  the  impulse  to 
artistic  production,  the  artist  exerts  an  elevating  and 
unifying  force  upon  others  and  thereby  contributes  to  social 
solidarity,  the  primary  function  of  art. 

The  artistic  impulse  is  not  so  strong  as  some  of  the  older 
impulses,  nor  is  it  so  definite  in  its  modes  of  reaction  and 
expression,  yet  it  is  quite  as  constant  in  its  promptings. 
From  its  relationship  to  the  impulse  of  self-preservation, 
race-preservation,  and  sociahty,  it  does  not  manifest  itself 
fully,  until  these  attain  a  reasonable  maturity.  In  early 
childhood,  the  aesthetic  sense  is  largely  sensory,  and  the 
child  delights  in  colored  objects  and  pictures  and  in  their 
creation,  in  music  and  poetry  with  a  pronounced  rhythm 
and  in  their  rendition,  but  linds  aesthetic  pleasure  in  Httle 
else.  His  idea  of  beauty  depends  largely  upon  what  is 
physically  agreeable.  There  is  no  decided  change  in  his 
taste  or  any  marked  interest  in  artistic  production  until 
the  beginning  of  puberty,  when  within  a  night,  as  it  were, 
there  is  born  a  pride  and  a  dehght  in  his  own  appearance 
and  in  the  appearance  of  the  other  members  of  the  family 
and  of  the  home.  With  the  rising  forces  of  adolescence, 
there  is  also  an  added  tendency  toward  artistic  creation 
and  a  growing  love  for  music,  poetry,  painting,  architec- 
ture, and  sculpture. 

The  full  import  of  the  artistic  impulse  has  not  as  yet 
been  recognized.  Nevertheless,  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual it  yields  to  him  experiences  that  make  up  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  pleasures  of  Life.  For  those  especially 
endowed,  a  line  of  activity  is  opened  which  may  lead  into 
any  one  or  into  all  of  the  fine  arts  and  enable  those  thus 
favored  to  become  benefactors  of  the  race.  On  the  part 
of  society,  it  is  the  source  of  one  of  its  phases,  giving  rise 


68        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

to  all  that  has  to  do  with  fostering  the  artistic  sense  and 
increasing  the  enjoyment  of  beauty,  such  as,  for  example, 
art  galleries  and  museums,  conservatories  of  music,  art 
displays,  and  concerts.  It  also  affects  and  contributes  to 
almost  every  other  phase,  for  note  the  place  of  art  in 
industry,  in  religion,  and  its  influence  upon  social  inter- 
course in  general.  Furthermore,  it  is  the  primary  medium 
of  giving  permanent  expression  to  social  ideals  and,  in  the 
hand  of  society,  is  a  powerful  means  in  elevating  the 
thought  and  unifying  the  purposes  of  the  masses,  in  exalt- 
ing the  dignity  of  ofi&ce  and  of  institutions,  and  in  securing 
respect  and  obedience  to  social  decrees. 

(J)  The  moral-religious  impulse.  —  Under  the  moral- 
rehgious  impulse  is  to  be  brought  the  instinctive  tendency 
to  do  what  is  approved,  the  instinctive  sense  of  obligation 
in  the  presence  of  duty,  the  longing  to  reahze  a  moral  ideal 
and  to  bring  the  self  into  harmonious  relation  with  the 
Divine  Will. 

With  reference  to  the  instinctive  character  of  morality, 
Sutherland^  writes,  " The  moral  instinct,  .  .  ,  is,  in  social 
animals,  the  result  of  that  selective  process  among  the  emo- 
tions which  tend  to  encourage  those  that  are  mutually 
helpful,  and  to  weaken  those  that  are  mutually  harmful." 
Stephen 2  says,  "Children,  no  doubt,  start  with  infinitely 
var3dng  aptitudes  for  moral  culture."  Perez  is  of  like 
opinion.  "The  moral  sense,  then,"  says  he,^  "is  one  of 
the  hereditary  faculties  most  liable  to  be  modified  by 
circumstances." 

Similar  high  authority  may  be  quoted  with  respect  to 

1  Sutherland,  Origin  mid  Growth  of  the  Moral  Instinct,  vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

^  Stephen,  Science  of  Ethics,  p.  419. 

^  Perez,  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood,  p.  287. 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  69 

the  instinctive  character  of  religion.  "Religion,"  writes 
Bender,^  "is  that  activity  of  the  human  impulse  toward 
self-preservation  by  means  of  which  man  seeks  to  carry 
his  essential  vital  purposes  through  against  the  adverse 
pressure  of  the  world  by  raising  himself  freely  towards  the 
world's  ordering  and  governing  powers  when  the  limits 
of  his  own  strength  are  reached."  Marshall  ^  maintains 
that,  "Religious  activities  are  the  expression  of  a  true 
instinct,  which  we  may  properly  speak  of  as  a  religious 
instinct." 

The  function  of  the  moral-religious  impulse  is  to  sub- 
ordinate impulses  of  individuaUstic  import  to  those  having 
social  significance.  The  utihty  of  such  an  impulse  to 
society  is  great.  The  older  nations  found  religion  the 
most  powerful  instrument  in  curbing  individualism,  in 
inculcating  respect  for  custom  and  law,  and  in  inspiring 
courage  and  self-sacrifice,  whereas  in  all  civilized  societies 
of  the  present  it  is  the  chief  means  of  quickening  the  con- 
science, of  instilling  ideals,  and  of  holding  men  to  their 
reahzation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  moral-reUgious  im- 
pulse has  great  worth  for  the  individual.  The  expression, 
"Man's  extremity  is  God's  opportunity,"  is  a  potent 
truth.  For,  when  man  is  in  distress  and  is  driven  into 
surrender  and  sacrifice,  he  finds  help  in  religion.  Under 
the  stress  and  burdens  of  the  world,  he  cries  out  for  repose 
and  a  richer  life,  and  to  give  this  more  satisfying  Life  is 
the  function  of  religion.  Furthermore,  the  fruits  of  the 
moral-religious  impulse  —  contentment,  purity,  charity, 
self-control,  love  —  are  qualities  essential  to  the  highest 
personal  living. 

*  Quoted  from  James,  Varieties  of  Religious  Experiences,  p.  507. 

*  Marshall,  Instinct  and  Reason,  p.  217. 


70        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

The  moral-religious  impulse  makes  its  appearance 
somewhat  late  in  the  development  of  the  child.  Yet  the 
moral  instinct  appears  in  an  objective  sense  of  right  and 
wrong  surprisingly  early,  though  it  does  not  become 
strong  and  active,  even  within  the  range  of  the  child's  own 
world,  much  before  the  age  of  five  or  six.  Just  when  the 
child's  heart  is  first  stirred  by  the  religious  impulse  is  hard 
to  say,  and  it  is  more  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  early 
religious  thoughts  and  actions  of  children  are  merely 
imitative  or  whether  they  are  accompanied  by  genuine 
religious  emotions.  Starbuck  ^  is  inclined  to  think  the 
earliest  of  these  are  external  and  lack  meaning.  The 
mere  putting  of  religious  questions  and  the  mere  imitation 
of  religious  activities,  to  say  the  least,  begin  about  the 
fourth  year  and  continue  with  increasing  frequency,  and 
whatever  question  there  may  be  about  the  presence  of  the 
religious  impulse  during  these  earlier  years,  there  can  be 
none  after  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen.  This  marks, 
beyond  doubt,  the  beginning  of  genuine  religious  life  and 
the  period  when  the  moral-religious  impulse  is  most  active 
and  its  impelHng  force  almost  irresistible. 

The  significance  of  this  impulse  is  too  well  understood  to 
need  discussion.  Morality  and  religion  He  at  the  founda- 
tion of  society  and  influence  its  every  aspect.  To  the 
individual,  they  open  a  source  of  life  from  which  he  draws 
his  highest  inspiration  and  his  most  sustaining  hope. 
In  a  word,  as  Professor  James  puts  it,  "  Society  and  the 
individual  without  morahty  and  rehgion  would  be  like 
the  body  void  of  the  spirit  of  life." 

4.  Primary  Characteristics  of  the  Will.  —  Such  are  the 
constituent  elements  of  the  human  will,  and  such  are 
^  Starbuck,  Psychology  and  Religion,  pp.  28-48. 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  71 

certain  of  their  characteristics.  It  remains  to  point  out 
those  characteristics  that  are  primary. 

First,  the  primal  impulses  —  the  elements  of  the  v/ill  — 
impel  the  individual  to  activity,  though  in  but  few  in- 
stances is  this  propulsion  so  definite  in  man  as  in  animals. 
With  the  latter,  the  coordination  between  inherited  tend- 
encies and  motor  centers  is  practically  fixed  before  birth, 
and  the  appropriate  action  is  performed  under  the  stress 
of  instinct.  As  an  illustration,  take  the  migratory  or  the 
nest-building  instinct  of  the  bird.  Still,  the  primal  im- 
pulses do  constrain  the  individual  to  well-defined  modes 
of  action,  give  rise  to  definite  needs,  and  as  such  are  to  be 
viewed  as  psychic  forces  which  constrain  to  action. 

Second,  as  psychic  forces,  the  quantity  of  the  force 
exerted  by  the  primal  impulses  may  be  increased  or  de- 
creased. This  may  be  decreased  through  certain  of  their 
transitory  forms,  as  instincts,  ripening,  expending  their 
energy,  and  fading  away;  or  it  may  be  decreased  through 
long  periods  of  inhibition  and  consequent  disuse.  The 
case  of  Darwin,  who  lost  his  interest  in  art,  is  in  point. 
In  a  word,  the  primal  impulses  arc  subject  to  the  "law  of 
disuse,"  and,  through  failure  to  give  an  impulse  appropriate 
expression,  the  force  exerted  by  it  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  subject  to  the 
"law  of  use,"  and,  through  indulgence  or  free  expression, 
the  quantity  of  propulsion  exerted  by  any  one  or  by  all 
primal  impulses  may  be  increased.  Witness  the  religious 
enthusiast,  the  devotee  of  art,  the  savant  of  science. 

Third,  the  primal  impulses  will  find  expression,  but  the 
mode  of  this  is  subject  to  control  and  direction.  Human 
beings  are  endowed  with  the  impulse  of  sclf-prcscrvation, 
but  whether  they  subsist  like  Fucgians  or  Americans  is 


72        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

not  a  question  of  impulse  but  of  how  this  impulse  is 
expressed,  or  their  physical  needs  satisfied.  The  Green- 
lander  and  the  Italian  are  gifted  with  artistic  sense,  but 
whether  a  crude  carving  of  an  arctic  animal  or  a  Sistine 
Madonna  is  created,  depends  upon  the  direction  given 
the  tendency.  Likewise,  as  with  all  impulses,  their  expres- 
sion is  subject  to  modification  and  guidance. 

Fourth,  like  all  forces,  the  elements  of  the  human  will 
are  in  themselves  bHnd;  they  merely  impel  the  individual 
to  action.  Fear,  for  example,  —  a  form  of  the  impulse  of 
self-preservation,  —  may  cause  the  individual  to  take  to 
his  legs,  but  of  itself  it  brings  forth  no  artificial  means  of 
defense;  hunger,  a  second  form,  dooms  him  to  search  for 
food,  yet  of  itself  it  tames  no  animals,  cultures  no  fruits, 
tills  no  fields;  cold,  a  third,  drives  him  to  seek  shelter, 
but  like  fear  and  hunger  it  builds  no  houses,  manufactures 
no  clothes.  The  artistic  impulse  constrains  him  to  artistic 
production,  but  it  reveals  no  worthy  object,  except  indi- 
rectly as  the  artistic  sense  is  satisfied  by  a  given  creation. 
Independent  of  other  influences,  the  primal  impulses  are, 
therefore,  mere  blind  forces  condemning  the  individual  to 
a  life  of  activity,  but  the  ends  toward  which  this  activity 
must  be  directed  to  the  greatest  advantage  are  supplied 
from  other  sources. 

5.  The  Will  and  Life.  —  Notwithstanding  impulses  are 
but  blind  forces  constraining  to  action,  they  determine  the 
principal  forms  or  phases  of  life.  Sentient  creatures,  for 
example,  are  endowed  with  the  impulses  of  self-  and  of 
race-preservation,  and  are  thereby  predisposed  to  ways 
of  life,  conducive  to  the  conservation  of  the  self  and  to  the 
continuation  of  the  race.  Those  organisms  gifted  with  a 
social  tendency  live  in  groups,  whereas  those  more  or  less 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  73 

devoid  of  the  social  impulse  seek  isolation.  So  invariably 
is  life  conditioned  by  impulse  and  so  deep-rooted  are  even 
certain  human  tendencies,  that  Sutherland  is  able  to  fmd 
traces  of  morality  among  the  higher  animals,  and  Romanes 
is  inclined  to  think  that  among  them  forms  of  fetichism 
are  also  to  be  found.  Each  impulse  thus  calls  forth  a 
given  line  of  action,  and  the  dilTerent  phases  of  human 
activity  to  which  the  primal  impulses  constituting  the 
human  will  give  rise  may  be  characterized  as  the  industrial, 
the  social,  the  intellectual,  the  artistic,  and  tlie  moral- 
rehgious. 

The  primal  impulses,  as  the  elements  of  the  human 
will,  not  only  condition  the  forms  or  the  phases  of  human 
life,  but  also  the  character  of  these  with  respect  to  both 
knowledge  and  action.  Viewing  hfe  chronologically,  Paul- 
sen^ says:  "Knowing  nothing  of  hfe  and  its  content,  this 
germinal  will  keeps  on  generating  new  impulses;  they 
follow  each  other  like  the  impulses  of  a  plant;  the  impulse 
to  walk,  to  climb,  to  speak,  to  play  with  horses  and  soldiers, 
or  with  dolls  and  clothes,  to  build  or  to  cook,  to  hear  and 
to  tell  stories,  and  to  see  and  to  understand  things.  Then 
at  last,  at  the  end  of  boyhood,  the  love  of  the  other  sex 
suddenly  breaks  out  as  a  new,  unheard-of  impulse,  and 
for  a  time  constitutes  the  fundamental  theme  of  inner  Hfe. 
Gradually  the  impulses  of  manhood  force  themselves  into 
the  foreground;  work  and  acquisition,  position  and 
fame  for  himself  and  his  children  become  the  great  topics 
of  a  man's  life,  until  finally,  involution  begins  and  death 
closes  the  account."  James  gives  expression  to  the  same 
thought:  "With  the  child,  life  is  all  play  and  fairy-tales 
and  learning  the  external  properties  of  'things';  with  the 
'  Paulsen,  Inlroduction  lo  Philosophy,  p.  116. 


74        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

youth,  it  is  bodily  exercise  of  a  more  systematic  sort, 
novels  of  the  real  world,  boon-fellowship  and  song,  friend- 
ship and  love,  nature,  travel  and  adventure,  science  and 
philosophy;  with  the  man,  ambition  and  policy,  acquisi- 
tiveness, responsibility  to  others,  and  the  selfish  zest  of 
the  battle  of  hfe."  This  dependence  of  the  content  of 
the  different  phases  of  human  life  upon  the  primal  impulses 
is  doubly  emphasized,  if  the  effect  of  the  lack  of  proper 
expression  or  of  mal-expression  of  their  various  forms  is 
observed.  When  such  has  been  the  case,  there  are  great 
barren  and  desert  gaps  in  the  Hfe  of  the  individual,  great 
blocks  of  the  content  of  a  well-rounded  development  are 
missing,  and  these  can  never  be  restored,  however  favor- 
able later  conditions  may  be. 

6.  The  Place  of  the  Will  in  Life.  —  The  place  occupied 
by  the  will  in  human  Hfe  may  now  be  brought  to  view,  if 
in  thought  one  after  another  of  the  elements  of  the  human 
will  is  withdrawn.  Deprive  the  individual,  for  example, 
of  every  vestige  of  the  moral-reHgious  impulse,  and  all 
moral  and  reHgious  activity  or  the  whole  phase  of  moral 
and  reHgious  Hfe  is  closed  to  him.  Erase  every  trace  of 
the  artistic  impulse,  and  the  individual  is  dead  to  all  that 
falls  within  the  category  of  the  beautiful.  Put  out  every 
spark  of  the  intellectual  impulse,  and  only  that  of  imme- 
diate utiHty  is  of  interest.  Take  away  every  tendency  to 
sociaHty,  and  you  have  the  ideal  hermit.  Kill  every 
stirring  of  the  imxpulse  of  race-preservation,  and  the  ceHbate 
exists  in  reaHty.  Deaden  that  of  self-preservation  in  all 
of  its  forms,  and  there  remains  nothing  but  a  lump  of 
inanimate  clay.  The  individual  deprived  of  the  wiU, 
even  though  he  possessed  self-consciousness  and  all  that  it 
impHes,  would  be  as  inactive,  cold,  and  disinterested  as 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  75 

the  statue  carved  in  his  image.  But  reverse  the  process, 
and  with  the  introduction  of  each  primal  impulse  there 
are  added  new  energies,  new  needs,  new  interests,  new 
motives,  —  a  basis  for  a  new  Kne  of  activity,  —  and  with 
the  addition  of  the  last,  he  is  endowed  with  the  elements 
opening  to  him  the  whole  range  of  human  hfe.  In  view 
of  what  the  individual  is  with  his  will  constituted  as  it  is 
and  of  what  he  would  be  without  it,  the  will  can  occupy 
none  other  than  the  place  of  primacy  in  the  psychical  life 
of  the  individual. 

To  assign  to  the  will  the  place  of  primacy  in  psychical 
life  is  no  new  thought.  This  has  been  done  since  the  days 
of  Aristotle.  With  reference  to  this  point  Schopenhauer^ 
says,  ''The  will  is  the  inner,  true,  and  indestructible  essence 
of  man.  ...  It  is  the  primary  phenomenon  of  the  organ- 
ism." "The  original  fact  of  every  soul-life,"  writes  Paul- 
sen,^ "is  a  concrete,  definitely  determined  will.  The  original 
form  of  the  will  is  impulse." 

§  4.  The  Intellect 

I.  The  Meaning  of  the  Intellect.  — As  with  the  will,  so 
with  the  intellect,  —  the  most  helpful  conception  for  the 
teacher  is  gained  from  considering  the  latter  in  its  relation 
to  Hfe.  When  thus  regarded,  the  intellect  is  the  medium 
through  which  Hfe  comes  to  know  itself  and  its  ends,  to 
know  the  conditions  environing  it  and  the  means  contrib- 
uting to  the  achievement  of  its  purposes.  As  such  a 
medium,  the  intellect  is  not  something  apart  from  Hfe; 
it  is  life  reveaHng  itself  unto  itself.  Although  a  mani- 
festation thereof,  the  intellect  is  not  commensurate  with 

1  Schopenhauer,  Fourfold  Root  and  Will  in  Nature,  p.  236. 

2  Paulsen,  Introduction  to  Philosophy,  p.  119. 


76        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

life,  for  life  is  more  than  the  intellect.  Indeed,  life  is  well 
up  in  the  higher  orders  before  the  intellect  is  to  be  found 
in  other  than  its  simplest  forms,  and  it  is  only  in  man  that 
it  appears  in  its  highest  development.  The  intellect  may 
then  be  defined  as  Hfe  in  its  cognitive  or  knowing  aspect. 

2.  The  Intellect  and  the  Intellectual  Impulse.  —  As  thus 
defined,  the  intellect  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  intel- 
lectual impulse.  The  latter,  to  be  sure,  is  vitally  related 
to  the  intellect  and  directly  influences  mental  activity. 
Still,  the  one  is  no  part  of  the  other,  for  the  two  belong  to 
different  aspects  of  life:  the  one  to  its  knowing  or  cogni- 
tive, the  other  to  its  dynamic  aspect;  the  one  is  a  source  of 
propulsion,  the  other,  of  impressions  and  ideas.  Being  a 
source  of  knowledge  and  not  of  propulsion,  it  is  therefore 
incorrect  to  think  of  the  intellect  as  one  of  the  forces  of 
life.  For  it  *'is  not  a  power,"  in  the  words  of  Spencer, 
"but  an  instrument  —  not  a  thing  which  itself  moves 
and  works,  but  a  thing  which  is  moved  and  worked  by 
forces  behind  it." 

3.  The  Intellect  as  the  Medium  of  Direction  and  Control. 
—  Though  an  instrument,  the  intellect  fills  an  important 
office.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  the  medium  which  supplies 
life  with  the  means  of  directing  its  impulses  in  their  ex- 
pression in  action.  Under  the  sole  dominion  of  impulse, 
the  individual  is  driven  about  at  random,  like  an  engine 
under  a  full  head  of  steam  without  the  guiding  rail,  or 
like  a  ship  under  full  sail  without  a  hehn.  But  what  the 
rail  is  to  the  engine,  or  the  hehn  to  the  ship,  the  intellect 
is  to  hfe.  The  individual,  to  illustrate,  is  moved  to  action 
by  hunger,  but  this  of  itself  reveals  no  means  of  gratifica- 
tion; it  is  the  intellect  alone  that  does  this.  Again,  he 
is  stirred  by  the  impulse  of  sociality,  and  the  intellect 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  77 

evolves  modes  of  social  intercourse  adapted  to  its  expres- 
sion and  satisfaction.  By  the  intellect  being  the  medium 
of  direction,  we  mean,  then,  that  it  yields  to  the  individual 
such  insight  into  ends,  and  supplies  him  with  such  knowl- 
edge of  means,  that  he  is  able  through  the  direction  of  ac- 
tion to  give  a  desired  expression  to  his  impulses;  to  give 
such  expression  to  the  constructive  instinct,  for  example, 
that  a  wigwam  or  a  canoe  is  made  according  to  his 
desire. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  intellect  is  the  medium  which 
suppHes  life  with  the  means  of  controlling  the  expression 
of  its  impulses.  The  primal  impulses  are  in  the  early 
part  of  child-hfe  under  no  conscious  control.  In  conse- 
quence, these  impulses  are  often  at  war  with  each  other 
and  the  child  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  strongest.  Impulses 
must,  however,  be  controlled,  that  is,  in  a  given  situation 
a  particular  tendency  should  be  given  free  expression,  in 
another  it  should  be  inhibited.  It  is  the  intellect  that 
enables  the  child  to  do  this.  For  example,  he  is  impelled 
by  the  fighting  instinct  to  fight,  but  in  view  of  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  unpleasant  consequences  of  such  action,  the 
tendency  is  inhibited.  Or  he  is  constrained  by  the  acquisi- 
tive instinct  to  collect  some  shells,  and  in  view  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  pleasure  to  be  derived,  the  impulse  is 
confirmed  and  the  shells  collected.  By  the  intellect  being 
the  medium  of  control,  we  mean,  then,  that  it  supplies 
the  individual  with  such  insight  into  values,  that  he  is 
able  —  in  view  of  the  recognized  worth  of  the  experience 
to  be  derived  from  putting  a  particular  impulse  into  active 
expression  —  to  confirm  or  inhibit  it. 

4.  Levels  of  Direction  and  Control.  —  Impulses  are  di- 
rected and  controlled  upon  four  diHerent  levels.    These 


78        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

levels  correspond  to  the  four  stages  in  the  development  of 
self-conscious  life,  and  may  be  characterized  as  the  assimi- 
lative, the  perceptual,  the  conceptual,  and  the  systematic 
levels  of  direction  and  control.  We  are  interested  more 
particularly  in  the  perceptual  and  the  conceptual. 

5.  The  Intellect  and  Direction  and  Control  of  Impulse  on 
the  Perceptual  Level.  —  The  basis  of  the  direction  of  impulse 
upon  the  perceptual  level  is  the  concrete  idea  or  concrete 
idea-whole.  Examples  may  be  observed  among  young 
children.  Preyer's  child  in  its  seventeenth  month  wanted 
his  toys.  Remembering  that  they  were  in  a  cupboard 
and  failing  in  trying  to  reach  them,  he  brought  a  traveling 
bag,  got  upon  it,  and  secured  them.  The  child  was  moved 
to  action  by  the  play  instinct;  the  memory  of  his  play- 
things and  where  they  were  gave  rise  to  the  desire  to  get 
them,  and  his  activities  were  consciously  directed  to  that 
end  on  the  basis  of  a  memory  idea  of  how  he  or  others 
obtained  things  they  could  not  reach.  The  later  imitative 
activities  of  children  are  also  illustrative  of  this  type  of 
direction,  such  as  are  to  be  seen  in  the  playing  of  house- 
keeping, groceryman,  deUveryman,  policeman,  or  Indian; 
likewise  are  the  activities  of  children  as  manifest  in  the 
dramatization  of  stories  and  in  the  making  of  such  ob- 
jects as  a  wigwam,  water-wheel,  or  flower-stand.  In  such 
cases,  the  child  is  moved  to  action  by  the  play,  the  artistic, 
or  the  constructive  instinct,  and  the  given  impulse  is 
directed  in  its  expression  in  action  upon  the  basis  of  a 
concrete  idea  or  concrete  idea-whole  of  what  the  grocery- 
man,  deHveryman,  or  poHceman  does,  or  upon  the  basis 
of  a  concrete  idea-whole  of  the  separate  scenes  of  the 
story,  or  of  how  a  given  object  looks  and  is  made. 

The  control  of  impulse  on  this  level  presupposes,  on  the 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  79 

other  hand,  concrete  knowledge  of  particular  needs  and  of 
the  value  of  their  satisfaction,  or  concrete  knowledge  of 
the  particular  value  of  the  experiences  resulting  from  the 
expression  of  a  given  impulse  in  a  given  way.  The  child's 
knowledge,  on  this  level  of  development,  of  his  needs  and 
of  the  value  of  his  experiences  is  of  course  incomplete,  yet 
it  is  sufficient  to  supply  the  basis  for  the  rise  of  motive 
and  for  the  simpler  forms  of  control.  To  illustrate,  the 
child  is  moved  by  hunger  to  eat  a  green  apple,  but  in  view 
of  his  concrete  memory  idea  of  the  previous  effects  of  so 
doing,  the  impulse  is  inhibited;  or  he  is  moved  to  play 
with  a  dog,  but  in  view  of  his  knowledge  that  this  dog 
bites,  the  impulse  is  controlled.  Or  he  is  tempted,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  spend  the  afternoon  in  playing  baseball  and, 
on  the  other,  to  spend  it  in  making  a  siphon.  On  reflec- 
tion, he  decides  that  the  pleasures  to  be  derived  from  the 
first  plan  have  greater  worth  to  him  than  those  to  be  ob- 
tained from  the  second;  the  latter  impulse  is  therefore 
inhibited  and  the  former  given  free  expression  in  action. 

The  direction  and  control  of  impulse  on  this  level  thus 
involves  concrete  ideas  or  idea-wholes  of  things,  needs, 
and  values,  and  it  is  in  making  possible  the  acquisition  of 
such  concrete  knowledge  that  the  intellect  serves  as  the 
instrument  of  perceptual  direction  and  control. 

6.  The  Intellect  and  Direction  and  Control  of  Impulse  on 
the  Conceptual  Level.  —  On  the  conceptual  level  of  self- 
conscious  life,  there  appears  the  power  of  conceptual 
thought.  That  is,  there  is  the  ability  to  bring  a  mass  of 
experiences  into  relation  to  a  single  interpretative  idea,  or 
to  analyze  a  number  of  similar  percepts  or  concrete  ideas 
into  their  essential  and  non-essential  elements  and  to  fuse 
tliose  found  essential  into  a  concept  or  general  idea. 


8o        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Certain  products  of  conceptual  thinking  are  of  special 
interest  here.  First,  it  is  through  this  mode  of  thought 
that  we  arrive  at  our  knowledge  of  physical  and  biological 
laws.  Second,  through  it,  we  come  to  conceive  of  our- 
selves and  of  others  as  permanent  selves,  as  having  per- 
manent needs  and  interests,  and  as  bound  to  conform  our 
actions  to  certain  well-defined  principles  of  conduct.  It 
is  also  through  conceptual  thought  that  we  attain  a  general 
idea  of  society,  of  its  institutions,  customs,  and  laws. 

From  these  illustrative  products  of  conceptual  thinking, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  basis  of  direction  on  the  conceptual 
level  is  different  from  that  on  the  perceptual.  There  is 
a  transition  from  concrete  ideas  or  idea-wholes  of  par- 
ticular cases  or  experiences  to  law,  principle,  or  ideal. 
For  example,  the  Indian,  moved  by  the  fighting  instinct, 
aims  an  arrow  directly  or  indirectly  according  as  the  threat- 
ening foe  is  near  or  far;  he  holds  it  in  this  way  because  he 
has  seen  other  arrows,  when  thus  aimed,  hit  the  desired 
mark.  The  trained  Japanese  artilleryman,  moved  by  the 
same  instinct,  aimed  the  cannon  at  the  Russian  warships 
in  the  harbor  of  Port  Arthur  not  as  he  had  seen  others 
do  it,  but  in  accord  with  the  principle  of  the  correlation  of 
forces.  The  mother  bird,  moved  by  the  parental  instinct, 
cares  for  her  young  as  the  particular  occasion  demands; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  hiunan  mother,  impelled  by  the 
same  impulse,  cares  for  her  child,  but  the  care  and  atten- 
tion given  it  are  determined  not  only  by  the  concrete 
idea  of  its  present  needs,  but  in  view  also  of  certain  prin- 
ciples of  hygiene  and  education. 

In  a  similar  way,  concepts,  principles,  and  ideals  serve 
on  this  level  as  the  basis  of  control.  As  suggested,  the  in- 
dividual is  able  through  the  power  of  conceptual  thought 


THE  PSYCHICAL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD  8i 

to  conceive  of  himself  and  of  others  as  having  fixed  needs 
and  interests.  In  possession  of  these  conceptions,  he  is 
able  to  subordinate  temporal  to  permanent  needs,  present 
to  future  ends;  in  short,  he  is  able  to  bring  his  impulses 
into  permanent  relations  with  one  another  —  bring  them 
into  a  system.  To  illustrate,  stimulated  by  the  acquisi- 
tive instinct,  one  may  be  tempted  to  steal,  but  in  view  of  in- 
sight into  his  relations  to  others  or  in  view  of  certain  ideals 
of  conduct,  the  tendency  is  inhibited.  Or  one  may  be  moved 
by  the  impulse  of  self-preservation  to  devote  his  energies 
to  the  acquisition  of  wealth  only,  but  because  of  other  per- 
manent interests  or  ideals  of  Hfe,  the  impulse  is  controlled. 

The  direction  and  control  of  impulse  on  the  conceptual 
level  imphes,  then,  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  principles  of 
the  physical  world,  and  of  the  nature  and  permanent  inter- 
ests of  the  self  and  of  others.  It  is  the  intellect  that  renders 
possible  the  acquisition  of  such  knowledge,  and  in  doing  this 
it  serves  as  the  medium  of  conceptual  direction  and  control. 

7.  The  Function  of  the  Intellect.  —  When  regarded  as 
the  instrument  of  direction  and  control,  the  function  of 
the  intellect  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  to  enable  life  to  give 
expression  and  determination  to  itself.  This  implies,  on 
the  one  hand,  that  through  the  intellect  the  individual 
is  able  to  interpret  in  terms  of  Hfe  the  meaning  and  worth 
of  the  dynamic  elements  of  his  nature,  and  able  in  the 
light  of  this  interpretation  to  formulate  an  end  or  goal  of 
Hfe,  such  that  each  primal  impulse  is  assigned  therein  the 
position  best  adapted  to  the  fulfillment  of  its  office,  and 
so  controlled  as  to  contribute  most  to  the  richness  of 
life.  It  imphes,  on  the  other  hand,  that  through  the  in- 
tellect the  individual  is  able  to  gain  such  insights  into  his 
natural  and  social  surroundings,  that  he  is  supplied  with 


82        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  means  of  giving  such  expression  and  direction  to  his 
impulses  as  will  yield  to  him  the  highest  self-development. 

8.  The  Significance  of  the  Intellect  for  Life.  —  From  this 
point  of  view,  the  primary  significance  of  the  intellect  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  renders  the  individual  self-conscious. 
For,  though  life  seeking  expression  is  embodied  in  its 
dynamic  elements  or  in  the  primal  impulses,  self-conscious- 
ness conditions  the  actualization  of  Hfe.  Deprive  the  indi- 
vidual of  self-consciousness  and  he  remains  submerged  in 
impulse,  buried  in  the  present,  and  indifferent  to  the 
future,  save  as  moved  by  instinct.  But  endowed  with 
self -consciousness,  he  becomes  conscious  of  worthy  ends, 
conscious  of  the  means  of  attaining  these,  and  able  to 
become  master  of  himself  within  the  Hmits  of  his  physical, 
intellectual,  and  impulsive  nature. 

Again,  the  significance  of  the  intellect  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  fact  that  it  enables  the  individual  to  free  himself  from 
bondage  to  natural  environment.  In  the  Hfe  of  animals, 
natural  environment  is  the  determining  factor.  Change  in 
physical  surroundings  necessitates  change  in  the  organism 
or  in  mode  of  hfe,  and  no  modification  can  be  made 
in  the  latter  which  is  not  compatible  with  the  former. 
For  example,  herds  of  buffaloes  roamed  over  the  territory 
west  of  the  Mississippi  until  toward  1873.  With  the  trans- 
formation of  this  region  from  a  natural  grazing  section  into 
an  agricultural  country,  the  buffalo  disappeared  because 
he  was  unable  to  prevent  this  change  or  to  adjust  himself 
to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  human  beings  are  able,  through 
the  intellect,  to  bring  about  alterations  in  their  physical 
surroundings  and  to  adjust  themselves  to  changes  that 
may  occur  independent  of  them.  Animals  are  thus  at 
the  mercy  of  natural  enviroimient,  whereas  human  beings, 


THE   PSYCHICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   CHILD  83 

by  virtue  of  their  intelligence,  are  at  least  partially  freed 
therefrom,  and  able,  within  limits,  to  make  their  environ- 
ment serve  their  purposes. 

A  further  point  of  significance  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
intellect  frees  the  individual  from  bondage  to  heredity. 
Animals  are  in  almost  complete  bondage  thereto.  A 
given  animal  lives  in  the  way  it  does  because  the  lines  of 
activity  determined  by  its  impulses  proved  beneficial  to 
its  ancestors.  The  life  of  one  animal  is  in  consequence 
much  like  that  of  others  of  the  same  kind,  and  this  is  quite 
like  that  of  their  forebears.  Indeed,  it  is  only  in  man  that 
we  find  hereditary  predisposition  decidedly  modified  and 
the  Hfe  of  the  individual  differing  radically  from  that  of 
his  ancestors,  that  we  find  life  determined  less  by  heredity 
than  by  the  individual  himself.  The  Hfe  the  individual 
lives  is  conditioned,  to  be  sure,  by  heredity  as  this  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  primal  impulses,  but  through  the  medium 
of  his  intellect  he  is  able  to  bring  to  bear  upon  the  direction 
and  control  of  these  inherited  tendencies  his  own  experience 
and  the  experiences  of  the  race,  and  is  thereby  able,  within 
limits,  to  free  himself  from  the  domination  of  heredity. 

9.  Tlie  Intellect  a  Seroant  of  the  Will.  —  The  intellect, 
however,  despite  its  significance,  is  the  servant  of  the  will. 
Needs  arise  from  the  will  as  embodied  in  the  primal  im- 
pulses, and  the  intellect  finds  ways  of  satisfying  these; 
from  the  will  spring  interests  and  ends,  and  the  intellect 
provides  means  of  gratification  and  attainment.  As  James  ^ 
says:  "The  cognitive  faculty,  where  it  appears  to  exist 
at  all,  appears  but  as  one  element  in  an  organic  mental 
whole,  and  as  a  minister  to  higher  mental  powers  —  the 
powers  of  will." 

'  James,  The  Will  to  Believe,  pp.  140-141. 


84        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

The  intellect  is  not  only  the  servant  of  the  will,  but  in 
its  service  it  is  not  at  Liberty  to  do  things  in  its  own  way. 
Perception  is,  for  example,  controlled  by  the  will;  it  does 
this  through  controlhng  attention.  Though  myriads  of 
stimuli  from  the  outer  world  beat  upon  the  sense  organs, 
only  those  sensations  are  worked  over  into  percepts  to 
which  attention  is  given  because  of  some  special  interest. 
The  will  likewise  controls  memory.  An  experience  of 
importance  is  grasped  as  in  a  vise;  while  the  same  event 
stripped  of  its  significance  fades  from  memory  with  the 
passing  of  the  day.  The  trains  of  our  ideas  are  also  sub- 
ject to  the  will,  for  the  immediate  needs  of  life  constitute 
the  center  about  which  thoughts  for  the  time  revolve, 
change  the  need,  and  the  ideas  within  the  stream  of  con- 
sciousness are  altered.  The  same  is  true  of  reason.  Be 
committed  to  a  Hne  of  action,  and  reason  at  once  finds 
grounds  for  it.  Indeed,  the  will  even  lays  its  deter- 
mining hand  upon  judgment.  This  is  seen  in  practical 
life,  where  there  are  as  many  answers  to  a  question  as 
there  are  interests  at  stake;  take,  for  example,  "State 
Rights,"  "Slavery,"  "Free  Silver,"  "Campaign  Contri- 
butions." It  is  to  be  seen  also  in  science  and  Hterature, 
and  in  philosophy  and  religion.  The  intellect  is  thus 
dominated  in  its  activity  from  the  lowest  to  its  highest 
modes  by  the  will.  It  must  not  only  do  the  work  of  the 
will,  but  do  only  what  is  prescribed  by  the  will. 

lo.  The  Place  of  the  Intellect  in  the  Life  of  the  Individual. 
—  Yet  the  intellect  occupies  no  mean  place  in  the  life  of 
the  individual,  for  without  its  service  the  larger  life  as 
manifest  in  the  will  would  never  be  actualized.  Still,  the 
larger  life  as  embodied  in  the  will  and  the  will  as  the  larger 
life-seeking  actualization  are  of  more  importance  than  that 


THE   PSYCHICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   CHILD  85 

which  serves  as  a  means  of  this  larger  Kfe.  In  consequence, 
the  intellect  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  secondary  aspect  of 
the  psychical  nature,  as  subordinate  to  the  will,  and  is  to 
be  assigned  a  place  of  secondary  importance  in  Hfe.  ; 

This  is  in  accord  with  Paulsen:  "The  will,"  he  writes, 
"is  the  original  and,  in  a  certain  sense,  constant  factor  in 
soul-life.  .  .  .  Intelligence  is  the  secondary  and  variable 
factor.  .  .  .  Everywhere  the  understanding  is  an  instru- 
ment in  the  service  of  the  will  and  surveys  the  environ- 
ment in  order  to  discover  how  the  will  may  reach  its  end 
in  the  best  and  easiest  manner.  .  .  .  The  will  is  the  archi- 
tect who  determines  the  form  and  style  of  the  building;  the 
intellect  simply  executes  the  plan."  ^ 

§  5.  Knowledge 

With  the  function  and  place,  in  the  life  of  the  child,  of 
both  the  will  and  the  intellect  determined,  it  remains,  if 
we  would  understand  his  psychical  nature  as  a  whole,  to 
consider  the  fact  of  knowledge. 

I .  The  Determination  of  Knowledge.  —  One  would  natu- 
rally infer  that  the  nature  of  knowledge  is  determined  by 
what  is  to  be  known,  by  things  as  they  are.  If  this  were 
true,  all  persons  would  have  the  same  idea  of  the  same 
thing,  of  the  same  occurrence  or  event.  But  they  have 
not.  Take  as  an  illustration  an  act,  an  accident,  an 
event  in  history,  or  the  different  ways  in  wliich  a  simple 
thing  like  a  piece  of  clay  may  be  regarded.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  our  knowledge  is  determined  neither  by  the  thing  to 
be  known  nor  by  the  intellect  in  itself,  but  it  is  determined 
more  especially  by  the  needs  of  life  seeking  expression  and 
actualization  in  the  will.  To  illustrate,  the  sensations 
^  Paulsen,  Introduction  to  Philosophy,  p.  115,  117. 


86        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

presenting  themselves  to  consciousness  are  without  mean- 
ing. The  will  presses  the  intellect  to  give  these  signifi- 
cance in  terms  of  life.  Of  these  sensations,  it  is  personal 
interest  that  determines  the  ones  to  which  attention  shall 
be  directed.  Again,  of  the  sensations  thus  emphasized, 
it  is  utility  that  decides  which  shall  be  combined,  taken 
as  signs  of  a  given  object  and  as  representing  its  simple 
quahties.  The  further  analysis  of  the  concrete  ideas  thus 
formed,  the  fixing  upon  their  common  and  essential  ele- 
ments of  meanings,  and  the  fusing  of  the  elements  found 
common  and  essential  into  a  concept  is  nke\\dse  done  on 
the  basis  of  the  relation  of  the  selected  elements  to  the 
needs  of  life.  In  truth,  "the  whole  function  of  conserving, 
of  fixing,  and  holding  fast  to  meanings,  has  no  significance 
apart  from  the  fact  that  the  conceiver  is  a  creature 
with  partial  purposes  and  private  ends."  Destroy  the 
will  with  its  biases  and  preferences,  and  there  remains  no 
motive  for  gaining  knowledge.  The  will,  however,  exists, 
the  practical  interests  of  fife  make  themselves  felt,  and 
sense  experience  is  interpreted  and  ordered  as  it  contrib- 
utes to  life,  and  though  no  such  classification  exists  in  the 
external  world,  one  group  of  what  is  accepted  as  knowl- 
edge is  dubbed  science,  another  art,  another  history,  ac- 
cording as  this  or  that  scheme  best  suits  the  purposes  of 
the  will. 

2.  The  Function  of  Knowledge.  —  In  view  of  its  deter- 
mination, the  function  of  knowledge  is  to  serve  the  pur- 
poses of  Hfe.  Speaking  for  the  moment  as  if  it  existed 
independent  of  the  intellect,  knowledge  fulfills  its  func- 
tion through  serving  as  the  means  of  revealing  ideals  or 
ends  of  action,  —  hence  of  controlKng  impulses,  —  and 
through  serving  as  the  medium  of  supplying  the  means  of 


THE   PSYCHICAL   LIFE   OF   THE    CHILD  87 

SO  expressing  and  directing  impulse  in  action  that  cher- 
ished ends  may  be  achieved. 

Before  the  individual  can  accept  an  ideal  as  his  own 
and  endeavor  to  conform  his  life  to  it,  he  must  be  con- 
scious of  the  ideal  and  of  its  implications.  To  be  con- 
scious of  an  ideal  and  of  its  meaning  is  to  have  knowledge 
of  the  ideal.  No  small  part  of  our  knowledge  is  of  this 
kind.  Such  knowledge  serves  its  function  when  in  and 
through  it  the  individual  comes  to  appreciate  ends  of 
action. 

An  end,  however,  implies  means,  that  is,  the  realization 
of  a  given  ideal  involves  knowledge  which  serves  as  the 
basis  for  directing  action  in  its  attainment.  Knowledge 
of  an  end  does  not  always  carry  with  it  insight  into  means. 
The  two  may  arise  in  the  mind  together,  but  as  a  rule  the 
end  is  first  recognized  and  the  means  necessary  to  its  attain- 
ment acquired  later.  This  is  true  in  industry,  in  intellectual 
work,  in  art,  in  life  in  general.  We  have,  then,  a  second 
type  of  knowledge  which  may  be  designated  knowledge  of 
means.  Through  this  typQ  of  knowledge,  the  individual 
comes  to  know  the  activities  involved  in  the  achievement 
of  a  given  ideal  and  is  supplied  with  the  basis  of  so  guiding 
and  directing  impulse  in  its  expression  in  action  as  to  attain 
the  given  end. 

The  line  between  knowledge  of  ends  and  knowledge  of 
means  cannot  be  sharply  drawn,  for  that  revealing  an  end 
in  one  case  may,  in  another,  serve  as  means.  Nevertheless, 
this  classification  has  practical  value  and  goes  to  the  heart 
of  the  problem  of  curriculum  making. 

3.  The  Function  of  Knowledge  and  of  the  Intellect.  —  The 
function  of  knowledge,  when  thus  conceived,  is  the  same 
as  the  function  of  the  intellect  when  viewed  as  the  instru- 


88        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ment  of  direction  and  control  The  grounds  of  this  sim- 
ilarity are  easily  discovered.  The  intellect  has  a  form, 
that  is,  it  manifests  itself  in  different  modes  of  psychical 
activity,  as  in  attention,  memory,  imagination,  and  reason, 
and  it  has  a  content.  Kjiowledge,  being  the  product  of 
intellectual  activity,  is  the  intellect  on  the  side  of  con- 
tent, and  the  function  of  knowledge  must  necessarily  be 
the  same  as  the  function  of  the  intellect  when  this  is  re- 
garded only  from  the  side  of  form.  The  function  of  the 
intellect  is  therefore  not  one  thing  from  the  point  of  view 
of  form  and  another  thing  from  the  point  of  view  of  con- 
tent, for  the  intellect  has,  when  taken  as  a  whole,  but  one 
function,  namely,  to  supply  insight  into  ends  and  insight 
into  means,  these  insights  to  be  employed  in  the  expres- 
sion, direction,  and  control  of  impulse. 

4.  Tlie  Place  oj  Knowledge  in  Life.  —  By  reason  of  its 
function,  knowledge  is  of  no  slight  significance.  Yet, 
however  significant,  it  is  but  the  means  to  the  expression 
and  actualization  of  life.  Knowledge  is  not,  therefore, 
an  end  in  itself,  nor  is  knowledge  to  be  acquired  for  the 
sake  of  knowledge.  For  apart  from  the  practical  needs 
of  life,  there  are  no  reasons  why  we  should  acquire  it. 
Hence  we  are  only  interested  in  knowledge  in  so  far  as  it 
contributes  directly  or  indirectly  to  life. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  knowledge  is  merely  a  means 
to  an  end,  it  is  of  secondary  importance.  Though,  from 
its  relation  to  the  intellect,  —  a  part  of  which  it  is,  — 
knowledge  is  to  be  regarded  as  coordinate  with  the  intel- 
lect on  the  side  of  form,  it  is  to  be  considered  secondary 
to  the  will,  and  to  be  valued  only  as  it  furthers  Ufe's  pur- 
poses. For  we  learn  that  we  may  act,  and  we  act  that  we 
may  live  more  abundantly. 


THE   PSYCHICAL   LIFE  OF   THE   CHILD  89 

§  6.  Educational  Inferences 

From  the  conclusions  reached  in  the  study  of  the  psychi- 
cal nature  of  the  child,  we  are  in  a  position  to  draw  certain 
inferences  which  will  serve  both  to  bring  these  conclusions 
into  relation  to  education  and  to  make  clear  the  source 
and  implications  of  two  principles. 

1 .  The  Child,  an  Impulsive,  Rational  Being.  —  In  view 
of  his  psychical  nature,  the  child  is  primarily  an  impulsive 
and  only  secondarily  a  rational  being.  He  is  not,  there- 
fore, to  be  regarded  as  passive,  receptive,  and  static,  but 
as  essentially  active  and  dynamic,  and  he  is  not  to  be 
viewed  as  moved  to  action  from  without,  but  as  impelled 
to  it  from  within. 

2.  Life  Determined  by  tJie  Will.  —  By  reason  of  the 
character  of  the  will,  of  its  significance  and  place  in  life, 
the  life  attained  by  the  child,  on  both  the  side  of  form  and 
of  content,  is  determined  by  the  expression  and  direction 
given,  and  by  the  control  exercised  over  the  will  or  the 
primal  impulses. 

3.  Life  Conditioned  by  the  Intellect.  —  In  view  of  the 
function  of  the  intellect,  the  expression  and  direction 
given  the  will,  and  the  control  exercised,  and  consequently 
the  life  attained  by  the  child,  are  conditioned  by  the 
ideals  of  life  and  by  the  means  of  expressing,  direct- 
ing, and  controlling  impulse  in  action  as  revealed  by  the 
intellect. 

4.  Will  Development  and  Pmnary  Work  of  Edtication.  — 
From  the  character  of  the  constituent  elements  of  the  will, 
will  development  consists  in  giving  higher  and  higher 
expression  and  direction  and  in  exercising  more  and  more 
appropriate  control  over  the  primal  impulses.    By  reason 


go        TRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

of  the  place  of  the  will  in  life,  will  development  becomes 
the  primary  work  of  education. 

5.  Intellectual  Development  and  Secondary  Work  of  Edu- 
cation. —  In  view  of  the  nature  of  the  intellect  and  of  its 
function  in  life,  intellectual  development  consists  in  the 
rise  of  higher  and  higher  modes  of  mental  activity,  which 
make  accessible  to  the  child  higher  and  more  compre- 
hensive ideals  of  Hfe  and  better  and  more  abundant  means 
of  directing  and  determining  the  will  in  its  expression. 
By  reason  of  the  place  of  the  intellect  in  life,  intellectual 
development  becomes  the  secondary  work  of  education. 

6.  Intellectual  Development  Conditioned  by  Will  Devel- 
opment. —  By  reason  of  the  respective  functions  of  the 
intellect  and  of  the  will,  and  by  reason  of  the  relation  of 
the  former  to  the  latter,  the  development  to  be  given  the 
intellect,  both  on  the  side  of  form  and  of  content,  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  expression  and  the  direction  to  be  given 
and  by  the  control  to  be  exercised  over  the  will. 

§  7.  Educational  Principles 

If  these  inferences  are  brought  together,  we  have, 
arising  out  of  the  nature  of  the  psychical  hfe  of  the  child, 
these  principles: 

1 .  The  giving  of  appropriate  expression,  direction,  and  de- 
termination to  the  will^ — -or  the  development  of  the  will — ■ 
constitutes  the  primary  work  of  education,  the  end  to  which 
every  phase  of  it  must  contribute  and  be  subordinated. 

2.  The  development  of  the  intellect  is  the  secondary 
work  of  education,  and  the  intellect  must  be  so  developed 
with  respect  to  both  form  and  content,  and  only  so  de- 
veloped, as  to  give  the  will  the  necessary  expression  and 
the  desired  direction  and  determination. 


THE  PSYCHICAL   LIFE   OF   THE   CHILD  91 

Readings 

Kirkpatrick,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study,  pp.  51-245. 

Perez,  First  Three    Years  of  Childhood,  pp.  60-98,  263-279,  285-292. 

King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  pp.  172-288. 

James,  Talks  to  Teachers,  pp.  39-63,  22-27. 

Ward,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  pp.  109-110,  182-185. 

Baldwin,  Ethical  and  Social  Interpretations,  pp.  247-250,  437. 

Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  137-140,  215,  246-248. 

Seth,  Fourth   Year  Book  of  National  Herbartian  Society,  pp.  7-25. 

Thorndike,    Educational  Psychology,  vol.  i,  pp.  50-169. 

Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  133-191. 

EUwood,  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  Aspects,  pp.  199.277. 

McDougall,  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psycltology,  pp.  265-351. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD 

§  I.  The  Problem 

The  education  of  the  child  not  only  impHes  insight  into 
the  nature  of  his  psychical  life,  but  also  presupposes  knowl- 
edge of  how  he  develops.  Our  next  task  is  therefore  to 
examine  the  nature  of  the  process  in  and  through  which  the 
child  develops  psychically. 

§  2.  The  Factors  that  Develop 

The  first  of  the  factors  that  develop  is  the  will.  Its 
constituent  elements,  the  primal  impulses,  are,  in  their 
undeveloped  state,  without  content  and  find  expression 
apart  from  conscious  control  and  direction.  Yet  in  these 
impulses  are  hidden  the  germs  of  human  needs,  the  well- 
springs  of  human  action,  and  the  possibility  of  rational 
conduct,  for  in  the  course  of  the  child's  development  they 
are  given  content  and  subjected  to  guidance. 

The  second  factor  is  the  intellect.  On  the  side  of  its 
form,  there  are  the  functions  of  attention,  dissociation, 
association,  memory,  imagination,  perceptual  and  con- 
ceptual reasoning,  and  it  is  these  modes  of  cognitive 
activity  that  develop.  On  the  side  of  content,  there  is 
sense-experience,  and  this  is  broadened  and  deepened, 
and  worked  over  into  different  kinds  of  knowledge. 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    CHILD       93 

§  3.  Periods  in  Psychical  Development 

1.  Basis  of  Determination.  —  During  a  greater  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  the  child  was  looked  upon  as  a 
"little  man,"  that  is,  he  was  thought  of  as  being  like  an 
adult,  except  that  he  was  smaller  in  body,  and  weaker  in 
intellect  and  will. 

If  the  "little  man"  theory  were  true,  the  psychical 
development  of  the  child  might  be  regarded  as  a  whole, 
and  development  viewed  as  merely  an  increase  in  psychi- 
cal power.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  child  is  not  like  the 
adult  in  his  mental  and  will  characteristics.  The  char- 
acter of  his  intellect  and  of  his  will  change  from  time  to 
time.  The  mental  powers  and  the  manner  of  thinking 
distinctive  of  an  early  period  are  different  from  those 
characteristic  of  a  later  one;  the  impulses  seeking  expres- 
sion in  infancy  are  not  the  same  as  those  dominating  youth. 
For  this  reason,  the  psychical  development  of  the  child 
falls  into  distinct  periods,  and  the  basis  of  fbdng  upon 
these  lies  in  the  recognition  of  differences  in  the  will  and 
intellectual  life  of  the  child  at  different  stages  in  his 
development. 

2.  The  Periods  of  Development.  —  The  periods  in  the 
psychical  development  of  the  child  have  been  designated, 
from  time  out  of  mind,  as  the  period  of  infancy,  that  is, 
from  birth  to  the  middle  of  the  second  year;  the  period  of 
childhood,  to  the  eighth  or  ninth  year;  the  period  of  boy- 
girlhood,  to  about  fourteen  for  boys  and  to  about  thirteen 
for  girls;   and  the  period  of  youth. 

In  view  of  our  idea  of  the  primary  work  of  education, 
it  is  preferable,  we  beUeve,  to  characterize  these  periods 
in  terms  of  the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  will. 


94        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

When  this  is  done,  we  have  the  period  of  the  assimilative 
will  corresponding  to  infancy,  the  period  of  the  percep- 
tual will  paralleling  childhood,  the  period  of  the  conceptual 
will  extending  over  boy-girlhood,  and  the  period  of  the 
conceptual  and  rational  will  covering  youth  and  adult  life. 

Although  the  development  of  the  child  is  to  be  viewed 
as  falling  into  these  periods,  they  are  not  to  be  regarded  as 
distinct  each  from  the  other,  but  to  be  thought  of  as  mark- 
ing stages  of  progress  in  a  process  which  is  a  continuous 
whole.  For  there  is  no  break  between  them,  the  one  glides 
imperceptibly  into  the  other,  and  the  development  begun 
in  the  one  is  continued  in  the  next,  although  in  a  more  or 
less  modified  form.  Nor  are  these  periods  to  be  viewed 
as  unrelated,  but  as  vitally  inter-related  and  each  condi- 
tioning the  other.  For  lack  of  development  in  an  earher 
period  manifests  itself  in  the  later,  and  no  amount  of  after 
training  will  wholly  efface  the  effects.  In  consequence, 
the  highest  development  in  any  later  period  presupposes 
a  normal  development  in  each  preceding  one. 

3.  Will  and  Mental  Elements  of  Different  Periods.  — 
Of  the  four  periods  in  the  psychical  development  of  the 
child,  we  are  especially  interested  in  the  periods  of  the 
perceptual  and  of  the  conceptual  will. 

In  the  period  of  the  perceptual  will,  or  of  childhood, 
the  distinctive  elements  and  those  with  which  the  teacher 
has  to  work  are,  on  the  side  of  the  will,  the  instincts  of 
fear,  anger,  pugnacity,  selfishness,  hunger,  cold,  acquis- 
itiveness, the  constructive  instinct,  sympathy,  the  social 
instinct,  imitation,  play,  curiosity,  and  the  tendency  to 
talk,  also  the  instinctive  appreciation  of  form,  of  color, 
and  of  rhythm,  and  the  instinctive  sense  of  obligation, 
justice,  and  right.    With  respect  to  mental  elements,  there 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   CHILD       95 

are  present,  of  the  cognitive  functions,  attention,  dissocia- 
tion, association,  memory,  imagination,  and  especially  the 
power  of  perceptual  reasoning.  While  on  the  side  of  mental 
content,  the  child  possesses  a  rudimentary  knowledge  of 
his  natural  surroundings,  which  he  views,  in  the  main, 
as  made  up  of  objects  having  Httle  connection,  and  known 
more  especially  with  reference  to  how  they  can  be  used 
and  what  they  can  do;  he  also  has  some  little  knowledge 
of  himself  and  of  his  needs.  The  child,  however,  in  so  far 
as  he  has  such  ideas,  on  this  level  of  development  thinks 
of  himself,  as  well  as  of  others,  as  having  a  body,  as  being 
able  to  do  certain  things,  as  having  certain  Kkes  and  dis- 
likes, and  as  having  certain  needs  that  demand  immediate 
satisfaction.  This  knowledge  of  the  self,  of  others,  and 
of  the  world  is  held  by  the  child  in  the  form  of  concrete 
ideas,  or  picture  wholes,  and  it  is  the  expression,  control, 
and  direction  of  impulse  in  the  light  of  and  upon  the  basis 
of  such  knowledge  that  is  characteristic  of  the  perceptual 
will  and  of  this  stage  of  development. 

In  the  period  of  the  conceptual  will,  or  of  boy-girlhood, 
the  elements  on  the  side  of  the  will  are,  on  the  one  hand, 
those  instincts  of  childhood  that  continue  to  impel  to 
action,  such  as  pugnacity,  selfishness,  hunger,  cold,  imita- 
tion, play,  acquisitiveness,  and  the  constructive  instinct, 
and,  on  the  other,  those  instincts  more  especially  distinc- 
tive of  boy-girlhood,  such  as  the  social  and  group  instinct, 
increased  curiosity  and  growing  love  of  knowledge,  a 
broader  interest  in  the  beautiful,  a  deeper  sense  of  right 
and  justice,  and  at  least  the  early  stirrings  of  the  religious 
impulse.  On  the  side  of  the  intellect,  there  become  active, 
in  this  period,  the  more  developed  aspects  of  attention, 
association,  dissociation,  memory,  imagination,  and  espe- 


96        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

dally  conceptual  reasoning.  The  transition  from  percep- 
tual to  conceptual  thought  brings  about  a  change  in  the 
child's  view  of  the  world  as  a  mere  collection  of  relatively 
separate  things,  and  he  comes  to  regard  things  as  possessing 
essential  attributes,  as  the  expression  of  principles.  The 
external  world  thereby  takes  on  an  orderly  appearance, 
and  type  and  law  are  recognized  as  fundamental  and 
controlling.  A  similar  change  occurs  in  the  child's  idea  of 
himself.  He  comes  to  regard  himself,  and  likewise  others, 
as  a  permanent,  feeling  subject  or  person,  with  fixed 
needs,  interests,  and  ends,  and  with  a  more  or  less  definite 
mission  to  accomplish.  This  view  of  the  world,  of  others, 
and  of  the  self  is  embodied  in  concepts  or  general  ideas, 
and  it  is  the  expression,  control,  and  direction  of  the 
impulses  of  boy-girlhood  in  the  light  of  principles  and 
ideals  that  distinguishes  the  conceptual  will  and  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  conceptual  period  of  development. 

§4.  The  Process:    The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge 

Whatever  else  the  process  may  be  in  and  through  which 
the  child  develops  psychically,  it  is  one  in  and  through 
which  he  acquires  and  makes  use  of  knowledge.  An 
appreciation  of  how  the  child  develops  psychically  implies, 
in  consequence,  an  examination  at  this  point  of  at  least 
the  general  characteristics  of  the  process  in  and  through 
which  the  child  gains  knowledge. 

I.   The   Meaning   of  Experience   and   of  Knowledge. — 
"Experience,"  writes  Morgan,^  "is  a  matter  of  impres- 
sions and  the  directly  presentative  elements  of  consciousness. 
For  every  sense-idea  we  must  have  had  direct  experience 
of  the  corresponding  sense-impression;    for  every  motor- 

1  Morgan,  Psychology  for  Teachers,  p.  49. 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   CHH^D       97 

idea,  a  motor-impression;  for  every  idea  of  relation,  a 
basis  in  practical  experience."  By  experience  is  meant, 
then,  the  sensations  or  the  impressions  gained  directly 
from  the  excitation  of  the  so-called  five  senses.  Though 
the  sensations  or  impressions  secured  from  the  sense 
organs  are  never  wholly  without  meaning  and  value  except 
in  infancy,  they  do  not  of  themselves  yield  us  knowledge; 
they  are  merely  the  materials  that  may  be  worked  over 
into  it.  Knowledge  is  consequently  nothing  more  or  less 
than  experience,  the  impressions  gained  from  the  senses, 
given  meaning  and  value.  The  process  through  which 
experience  is  acquired  and  worked  over  into  knowledge 
is  called  learning. 

2.  The  Implications  of  Learning  or  of  the  Acquisition  of 
Knowledge.  —  Though  it  is  the  intellect  that  enables  us 
to  learn,  there  is  implied  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
first,  that  the  child  have  experience.  To  illustrate, 
before  a  child  can  know  what  an  apple  is,  he  must  see, 
touch,  smell,  and  eat  one,  and  he  must  give  meaning  and 
value  to  the  sensations  or  impressions  derived  therefrom. 
Hence,  the  condition  of  learning  is  the  presence  in  the 
mind  or  in  consciousness  of  experience. 

The  ideal  way  to  get  experience  is  through  the  expression 
of  impulse  and  through  reacting  upon  external  objects. 
To  acquire  experience  through  the  expression  of  impulse 
in  action  and  through  reaction  upon  the  thing  to  be  learned 
is  termed  the  direct  method. 

In  the  economy  of  mental  life,  there  are  short  cuts  and 
abridgments  of  processes,  and  it  is  here  that  one  of  the 
most  important  of  these  occurs.  After  the  child  has  given 
meaning  and  value  to  a  number  of  actual  experiences 
and  gained    thereby  some  little   knowledge,   he  is  able, 


98        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

from  description  cither  oral  or  written,  and  through  the 
use  of  old  knowledge  and  the  exercise  of  reproductive 
and  constructive  imagination,  to  induce  a  sort  of  mimic 
experience  of  the  facts,  scene,  or  situation  described. 
This  mimic  or  self-induced  experience  may  be  worked 
over  into  knowledge  which  answers  all  practical  purposes. 

Such  experience  is  supphed  by  what  is  called  the 
indirect  method.  This  method  renders  available  experi- 
ences other  than  actual,  and  since  under  present  con- 
ditions of  instruction  it  is  impossible  to  supply  the  child 
with  all  the  direct  sense-impressions  necessary  to  give 
him  the  knowledge  needed  to  adjust  his  Hfe  to  present 
social  conditions,  considerable  recourse  must  be  had  in 
education  to  this  indirect  method.  Nevertheless,  the 
superiority,  for  learning,  of  actual  over  self-induced 
experience  and  of  the  direct  over  the  indirect  method 
of  supplying  it  is  questioned  by  no  one. 

Secondly,  not  only  does  learning  presuppose  the  pres- 
ence in  the  mind  of  experience,  but  it  impUes  that  this  be 
given  meaning.  To  give  meaning  to  experience,  the  child 
must  become  conscious  of  the  effects  of  the  given  experi- 
ence and  of  the  significance  for  him  of  these.  To  illustrate, 
a  lump  of  substance  is  placed  in  the  child's  mouth,  he  feels 
a  distinct  pressure  upon  his  tongue,  he  feels  the  substance 
melting,  and  notes  an  agreeable  sweet  sensation.  The 
child,  we  say,  has  had  the  experience  of  tasting  sugar. 
But  what  meaning  has  this  for  him?  It  means  the  sum 
total  of  the  recognized  and  associated  effects:  the  sense 
of  pressure,  of  dissolution,  the  sweet  taste,  and  the  signifi- 
cance these  have  for  him.  Or,  take  the  six-year-old's  idea 
of  fire,  "Fire  is  what  burns."  Its  meaning  to  him  is  its 
recognized  effects  and  their  significance,  and  it  is  in  the 


I 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    CHILD       99 

light  of  the  fact  that  experience  is  given  meaning,  in  view 
of  the  effects  of  the  experience  and  the  significance  of  these 
effects,  that  the  definitions  of  children  find  their  explanation. 

Thirdly,  the  gaining  of  knowledge  implies  that  experience 
be  given  value.  To  give  value  to  experience,  the  child 
must  become, conscious  of  both  its  worth  as  an  aid  to  action 
and  as  a  thing  to  be  enjoyed.  For  example,  a  boy  eats  a 
green  persimmon  and  the  value  assigned  to  the  experience 
depends  upon  the  estimate  put  upon  his  discomfort  and 
the  recognition  of  its  utility  in  directing  future  action; 
he  eats  a  ripe  one  and  the  value  given  depends  upon  the 
worth  assigned  to  the  experience  as  a  basis  for  guiding  ac- 
tion and  upon  that  ascribed  to  the  enjoyment  derived  from 
it.  To  give  experience  value  implies,  therefore,  that  the 
child  becomes  conscious  of  its  worth. 

3.  Processes  of  Learning  or  of  Acquiring  Knoiiiedge.  — ■ 
There  are  four  processes  through  which  experience  is  given 
meaning  and  value,  or  of  learning:  the  assimilative,  the 
perceptual,  the  conceptual,  and  the  systematic.  Each  is 
active  within  limits  during  a  given  period  of  life  and  on  a 
given  level  of  development.  The  assimilative  operates  in 
infancy,  the  perceptual  in  childhood,  the  conceptual  in 
boy-girlhood,  and  the  conceptual  and  systematic  in  youth 
and  adult  life.  Of  these  processes,  the  perceptual  and  the 
conceptual  are  of  particular  interest  to  us. 

The  perceptual  process  of  learning  has  two  modes,  the 
inductive  and  the  deductive. 

{a)  The  inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning.  — 
The  following  are  illustrative  of  the  inductive  perceptual 
process  of  learning: 

Happening  to  be  in  the  kitchen  one  day,  when  a  boy 
about  nine  years  of  age,  my  mother  said,  "We  are  going 


loo      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

to  have  something  new  for  luncheon  —  grape-fruit."  So 
far  as  I  remember,  I  had  never  seen  or  heard  of  it.  Having 
the  proverbial  appetite,  I  was  interested  in  the  new  food, 
and  on  observing  it  was  impressed  with  the  similarity 
between  grape-fruit  and  an  orange,  with  respect  to  form, 
color,  and  rind,  and  with  respect  to  the  form,  structure, 
and  arrangement  of  carpels.  Variations  between  the  two 
were  noted,  but  upon  reflection  all  were  ignored  save  those 
of  size,  form,  and  color.  On  smelhng  it,  the  odor  seemed 
like  that  of  an  orange,  yet  decidedly  different;  after  re- 
peated comparisons  I  concluded  it  was  something  like  the 
odor  of  a  sickroom.  The  taste  at  first  seemed  Uke  that 
of  a  lemon,  but  I  soon  found  it  was  different,  and  after 
recalling  the  taste  of  various  things  and  after  repeated 
judgments,  I  decided  it  was  something  like  that  of  quinine. 
As  both  the  taste  and  smell  were  disagreeable,  I  concluded 
that  I  did  not  like  grape-fruit.  All  these  sense-impressions 
and  the  significance  and  value  given  them  were  fused  into 
one  idea-whole,  and  I  came  to  think  of  grape-fruit  as  a  big, 
round,  light  yellow,  sickly  smelhng,  orange-like  fruit,  with 
a  flavor  like  quinine,  and  of  Httle  worth. 

A  sample  of  valerianate  of  ammonia  was  given  me,  of 
which  I  was  ignorant,  except  as  I  recognized  a  few  familiar 
quahties.  I  observed  its  appearance  and  noted  that  it 
looked  hke  particles  of  glass  broken  up  into  small,  irregular, 
flat  pieces.  I  felt  of  it  until  I  got  a  tactual  image;  this 
image  was  on  the  whole  a  new  one,  yet  I  found  old  elements, 
for  the  feehng  was  something  like  that  of  a  hard-smooth- 
cool-Hquid-oily  substance.  I  tasted  it  and  got  a  new  taste 
which  was  sharp  and  cutting,  unlike  anything  I  had  ever 
experienced.  I  smelled  of  it  and  got  an  olfactory  image 
of  its  distasteful,  pungent  smell;    this  odor  was  likewise 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   CHH^D     loi 

an  essentially  new  one.  Reflecting  upon  these  impres- 
sions and  associating  these  images,  valerianate  of  ammonia 
came  to  mean  a  flat,  irregular,  glass-like  substance,  with  a 
hard-smooth-cool-liquid-oily  texture,  with  a  sharp  cutting 
taste,  and  disagreeable  pungent  odor,  —  or  its  recognized 
effects  upon  me.  Not  knowing  anything  of  its  medicinal 
use,  its  value  was  determined  in  view  of  my  recognized 
discomfort,  and  I  decided  that  it  was  worthless  stuff. 

A  boy,  for  example,  may  know  a  brick  when  he  sees  it, 
and  something  of  its  use,  but  he  may  be  ignorant  of  how 
it  and  similar  things  are  made.  Take  him,  however,  to 
the  clay  bank  where  the  clay  is  being  dug,  let  him  follow 
the  clay  to  the  pit  where  it  is  deposited  and  prepared  for 
moulding,  let  him  watch  the  moulding  and  go  with  the 
newly-made  brick  to  the  drying  yard,  let  him  follow  it  to 
where  the  bricks  are  being  set,  let  him  see  the  kiln  flred 
and  the  newly-burned  bricks,  still  warm,  coming  from  the 
kiln,  let  him  reflect  upon  the  impressions  gained  and  upon 
the  reason  for  the  separate  parts  of  the  process,  and  there 
will  arise  in  his  mind,  as  the  result  of  his  observations  and 
thought,  a  concrete  idea-whole  of  how  a  brick  is  made. 

In  the  above  iUustrations,  the  experience  given  meaning 
and  value  is  to  be  characterized  as  essentially  new.  For, 
although  among  the  sensations  gained  from  eating  grape- 
fruit there  are  old  impressions  obtained  from  oranges,  the 
meaning  and  value  of  which  are  known,  there  are  impres- 
sions never  before  in  the  mind,  whose  meaning  and  value 
must  be  determined  for  the  first  time,  and  it  is  these  that 
make  the  experience  an  essentially  new  one.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  experience  derived  from  valerianate  of 
ammonia  and  from  visiting  the  brick  plant. 

For  a  like  reason,  the  concrete  ideas  acquired  are  to  be 


I02      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

similarly  characterized.  To  be  sure,  all  the  parts  of  the 
concrete  idea  gained  of  grape-fruit,  of  valerianate  of 
ammonia,  and  of  how  a  brick  is  made  are  not  essentially 
new,  —  indeed,  there  are  many  old  factors  in  them,  — 
yet  there  are  in  these  ideas  essentially  new  elements. 

By  reason  of  the  character  of  the  experience  given 
meaning  and  value,  and  by  reason  of  the  character  of 
the  ideas  acquired  through  it,  the  inductive  perceptual 
process  of  learning  may  be  defined  as  that  process  of 
thought  or  of  reasoning  in  and  through  which  particular 
meaning  and  value  is  given  to  an  essentially  new  experi- 
ence, and  the  experience  and  the  meaning  and  value 
given  symbolized  to  the  self  by  an  essentially  new  concrete 
idea  or  concrete  idea-whole. 

As  the  source  of  our  essentially  new  concrete  ideas  or 
idea-wholes,  the  inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning  is 
distinctively  constructive  and  creative.  For,  taking  the 
experience  derived  from  grape-fruit,  from  valerianate  of 
ammonia,  or  from  visiting  the  brick  plant,  giving  the  sepa- 
rate elements  of  this  meaning  and  value,  and  forging  these 
separate  elements  into  an  essentially  new  concrete  idea  or 
idea-whole,  is  as  distinctively  a  construction,  a  creation, 
as  the  greatest  scientific  invention  or  literary  production, 
and  the  thought  movement  within,  though  psychological 
and  not  logical,  is  as  distinctively  one  of  induction. 

(6)  The  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning.  — 
The  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning  is  illustrated 
by  the  following: 

5  had  never  had  and,  so  far  as  known,  had  never  seen 
or  played  with  other  than  colored  round  balls.  One  day 
a  pygmy  football  was  given  him,  without  a  word.  At 
first,  he  took  little  notice  of  it;   soon,  however,  he  began 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE   CHILD     103 

to  play  with  it.  Gradually  his  face  lighted  up,  and  he  said, 
*'Ball,  ball."  Upon  being  asked  to  give  it  back,  he  ran 
away.  5  had  likewise  never  had  and,  so  far  as  knowTi, 
had  never  seen  other  than  small  rag  dolls.  Upon  being 
given  —  without  a  word  save  "This  is  for  baby" — a  life- 
like doll,  his  face  lighted  up  instantaneously,  and  he  shouted 
with  glee,  "Dolly,  doUy,  baby  doUy!" 

A  bottle  was  placed  before  a  boy  seven  and  a  half  years 
of  age,  the  object  being  to  have  him  relate  what  went  on 
in  his  mind  as  he  tried  to  find  out  what  was  in  the  bottle. 
The  following  is  a  transcript: 

"Upon  smelling  the  substance,  the  odor  seemed  familiar 
to  him,  but  suggested  nothing.  On  the  second  trial,  it 
still  seemed  familiar,  and  he  found  liimself  naming  over 
different  odors,  comparing  with  these  the  one  in  question 
and  trying  to  identify  it,  but  he  failed.  On  the  third  trial 
hair  ointment  was  suggested,  and  on  comparing,  he  felt 
certain  that  the  odor  was  that  of  hair-oil.  With  the  rise 
of  this  sense  of  certainty,  he  could  feel,  as  it  were, 
the  meaning  and  value  attached  thereto  going  over  to 
the  given  substance."  The  material  in  question  was  the 
essence  of  bergamot  used  extensively  in  hair  ointments. 

From  the  above  illustrations,  it  will  be  seen  that  mean- 
ing is  given  to  experience  in  the  deductive  perceptual 
process  of  learning  through  recognizing  the  similarity 
between  the  experience  in  question  and  a  past  experience, 
and  through  a  transfer  —  upon  the  basis  of  recognized 
similarity  —  of  the  particular  meaning  of  the  ex'perience 
similar  to  the  one  in  question.  Likewise  with  the  assign- 
ment of  value.  Life  proceeds  upon  the  principle  —  to 
be  sure,  acted  upon  at  first  unconsciously  —  that  simi- 
larity of   meaning   is   indicative   of   similarity  of   value. 


104      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Consequently,  when  upon  the  ground  of  Hkencss  the 
concrete  meaning  of  a  past  experience  is  transferred,  its 
particular  value  is  also  transferred,  and  the  experience  in 
question  is  ascribed  a  value  similar  to  that  of  a  given 
past  experience. 

The  experience  acquired  and  worked  up  into  knowledge 
through  this  process  of  learning  is  to  be  characterized  as 
new,  though  there  are  no  essentially  new  elements  in  it, 
no  elements  never  before  given  meaning  and  value.  The 
combination  of  elements  is,  however,  new,  and  this  makes 
the  experience  as  a  whole,  though  similar  to  a  previous 
experience,  different  from  any  other. 

The  concrete  ideas  or  idea-wholes  gained  through  this 
process  of  learning  may  also  be  characterized  as  new.  For 
the  child's  concrete  idea  of  the  hfe-like  doll  is,  for  example, 
in  no  sense  an  essentially  new  mental  product,  though  it 
is  similar  to  his  idea  of  his  rag  doll.  Still,  the  two  ideas 
lie  apart  in  his  mind  and  are  carriers  of  somewhat  different 
meanings  and  values.  A  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole 
is,  then,  one  that  is  similar  to  a  concrete  idea  previously 
acquired,  yet  is  somewhat  different  and  is  held  in  the 
mind  as  a  separate  picture-whole. 

From  the  character  of  the  experience  given  meaning 
and  value,  and  from  the  character  of  the  ideas  acquired 
through  it,  the  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning 
may  be  defined  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of  reasoning 
through  which  particular  meaning  and  value  is  given  to 
a  new  experience  and  the  experience  and  the  meaning 
and  value  given  symbolized  to  the  self  by  a  new  concrete 
idea  or  idea-whole. 

(c)  The  relation  between  processes  of  perceptual  learn- 
ing. —  The  basis  of   a  process  of   deductive  perceptual 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   CHH^D     105 

learning  is,  as  we  have  seen,  old  experience  having  particular 
meaning  and  value,  or  old  concrete  ideas.  These  old  ideas 
are  acquired  as  a  rule  through  inductive  perceptual  learning. 
The  inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning  is  therefore  the 
prior  process  and  conditions  the  wider  operations  of  the 
deductive. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  essentially  new  experience, 
acquired  and  worked  over  into  knowledge  through  the 
inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning,  includes  within  it 
old  elements.  So  far  as  the  essentially  new  experience 
includes  old  elements  and  these  are  not  greatly  modified 
by  the  new  combination,  it  is  given  meaning  and  value 
through  a  process  of  deductive  perceptual  learning,  as  this 
is  the  more  ready  and  economical  method.  Inductive 
perceptual  learning  thus  implies  at  least  the  implicit 
operations  of  the  deductive,  and  tliough  the  operations  of 
the  former  are  not  fundamentally  conditioned  by  the  latter, 
they  are  greatly  faciHtated  thereby. 

The  processes  of  perceptual  learning  are  therefore 
related  and  each  conditions  the  workings  of  the  other. 

(d)  The  products  and  results  of  the  perceptual  process 
of  learning.  —  The  product,  on  the  side  of  knowledge, 
of  the  perceptual  process  of  learning  is,  as  suggested,  a 
concrete  idea  or  concrete  idea-whole.  Through  this  pro- 
cess the  child  gains,  on  the  one  hand,  free  ideas  of  given  im- 
pulses, of  given  needs,  and  of  particular  ways  and  means 
of  expressing  his  impulses  and  of  satisfying  his  wants,  and, 
on  the  other,  he  gains  through  it  free  ideas  of  objects  and 
things,  and  of  the  conditions  environing  his  Hfe. 

The  concrete  ideas  thus  acquired  are,  however,  not  static; 
they  undergo  change  and  development.  These  are  built 
up  out  of  experience,  and  the  elements  thereof  which  may 


io6      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

be  seized  upon  and  worked  over  into  knowledge  are  deter- 
mined by  practical  needs.  The  child's  needs  are,  however, 
subject  to  variation,  and  his  reactions  to  the  same  object 
or  situation  therefore  vary  from  time  to  time,  so  that  there 
is  a  consequent  change  in  his  notion  of  a  given  object.  His 
idea  of  a  knife  differs  at  different  times,  and  on  the  whole  is 
never  like  the  manufacturer's;  his  idea  of  playing  ball  is 
modified  from  time  to  time,  and  is  never  quite  like  that  of 
the  professional  ball  player;  his  idea  of  a  horse  is  always 
far  from  that  of  the  professional  breeder.  Since  a  concrete 
idea  is  a  living,  developing  thing,  and  not  something  that 
can  be  stamped  upon  the  child's  mind  in  its  final  form  once 
for  all,  the  question  for  the  teacher  is :  What  concrete  idea- 
whole  of  a  particular  need,  object,  or  situation  can  and 
should  be  given  to  the  child  at  a  given  time? 

The  results,  on  the  side  of  action,  of  the  perceptual  pro- 
cess of  learning  are,  that  the  child  is  able,  in  the  Ught  of  the 
essentially  new  concrete  ideas  acquired  through  the  induc- 
tive mode,  to  give  expression  in  action  to  his  impulses  in 
essentially  new  ways  and  to  adjust  himself  to  essentially 
new  conditions,  and  is  also  able,  upon  the  basis  of  the  new 
concrete  ideas  gained  through  the  deductive  mode,  to 
direct  his  activities  with  ease  and  economy  in  the  presence 
of  old  and  similar  situations. 

4.  The  Conceptual  Process  of  Learning.  —  With  the  in- 
creasing complexity  of  Hfe  for  the  child  and  with  the  rising 
powers  of  the  intellect,  the  perceptual  process  of  learning 
is  gradually  supplanted  by  the  conceptual. 

There  are  two  modes  of  conceptual  learning,  the  induc- 
tive and  the  deductive. 

{a)  The  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning.  —  As 
an  illustration  of  the  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learn- 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT  OF   THE   CHH^D     107 

ing,  a  child,  say,  becomes  acquainted  with  different  kinds  of 
knives  —  a  pocket  knife,  a  table  knife,  a  carving  knife,  etc. 
He  observes  that  they  are  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  made 
of  different  materials,  and  used  in  different  ways.  Hearing 
such  different  things  called  knives,  confusion  arises  and  the 
question  comes:  What  is  a  knife?  The  recall  of  the  con- 
crete ideas  of  the  knives  he  knows  yields  no  answer.  If 
actuated  by  sufficient  motive,  these  concrete  ideas  are  sep- 
arated into  their  elements,  the  cormnon  and  essential  ones 
noted,  and  the  elements  found  common  and  essential  fused 
into  a  general  notion;  and  thereafter  a  knife  means  to  the 
child  a  thing  of  convenient  form  and  size,  having  a  handle 
and  blade,  and  used  for  cutting.  Value  is  assigned  to  this 
insight  in  view  of  the  mental  satisfaction  it  affords  and  in 
the  light  of  its  utiHty. 

Or  a  child  has  learned  through  the  inductive  perceptual 
process  how  to  add  $12  and  $14.  This  knowledge  may  be 
used  as  a  guide  in  adding  similar  numbers,  such  as  12  cents 
and  16  cents,  17  horses  and  19  horses.  There  will  come  a 
time,  however,  when  the  child  is  confronted  with  the  ques- 
tion: How  can  I  find  the  sum  of  any  given  numbers?  The 
mere  calling  to  mind  of  how  he  added  other  problems  fails 
to  supply  the  desired  information,  for  the  general  elements 
in  the  concrete  problems  and  in  their  solution  are  not  ap- 
parent. These  elements  can  be  brought  to  view  only 
through  separating  given  problems  and  the  operations  in 
their  solution  into  their  elements,  through  fixing  upon  the 
common  and  essential  ones,  and  through  bringing  these 
elements  into  a  general  idea. 

Or  a  child  has  gained  at  school  a  concrete  idea-whole  of 
Niagara  Falls.  Through  railroad  advertisements  or  con- 
versation at  home,  this  question  arises:  Why  is  Niagara  so 


io8      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

famous?  The  mere  recall  of  his  concrete  idea  of  Niagara 
will  fail  to  supply  the  answer.  To  attain  this,  he  must  re- 
flect upon  the  given  parts  of  Niagara,  consider  what  it  is 
with  and  what  it  would  be  without  this  and  that  one,  pass 
judgment  upon  what  parts  are  distinctive,  and  see  that 
Niagara  is  famous  because  of  these  particular  features. 

The  experience  given  meaning  and  value  through  the 
inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  is  to  be  character- 
ized as  essentially  new.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  same 
sense-impressions  have  never  before  been  in  the  mind,  or 
that  their  concrete  meaning  and  value  have  never  before 
been  appreciated.  For  the  child  in  the  above  illustrations 
had  had  the  experience  and  was  in  possession  of  concrete 
ideas  of  knives,  of  particular  problems  and  their  solution, 
had  a  concrete  idea- whole  of  Niagara,  long  before  the  incep- 
tion of  the  given  process  of  inductive  conceptual  thought. 
Nor  does  it  imply  that  there  are  no  elements  in  the  experi- 
ence or  experiences  in  question,  the  general  meaning  and 
value  of  which  are  known.  To  characterize  an  experience 
or  experiences  as  essentially  new  merely  means  that  there 
are  elements  included,  the  general  meaning  and  value  of 
which  must  be  determined  for  the  first  time  and  determined 
more  or  less  independently  of  any  previously  acquired  gen- 
eral ideas. 

The  general  ideas  gained  through  the  inductive  concep- 
tual process  of  learning  are  also  to  be  characterized  as 
essentially  new.  The  child,  for  example,  in  the  above 
illustrations  came  for  the  first  time  to  appreciate  what  a 
knife  is,  how  to  solve  any  problem  in  addition,  what  features 
of  Niagara  are  distinctive,  and  nowhere  in  his  fund  of 
knowledge  has  he  general  ideas  essentially  similar.  All 
parts  of  an  essentially  new  general  idea  are,  of  course,  not 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    CHILD     109 

new.  Such  ideas  include  old  elements  of  general  meaning 
and  value,  yet  in  an  essentially  new  general  idea  there  are 
elements  of  general  meaning  and  value  appreciated  for  the 
first  time,  which  make  the  general  idea  gained  essentially 
different  from  any  previously  acquired. 

The  essentially  new  general  ideas  obtained  through  the 
inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  fall  into  two 
classes  —  class  concepts  and  individual  concepts.  A  class 
concept  is  an  idea  of  the  common  and  essential  qualities 
or  characteristics  belonging  to  a  class  —  for  example,  the 
abstract  idea,  horse,  river,  water-fall,  or  the  idea  of  a  prin- 
ciple, rule,  or  definition,  such  as  the  principle  of  the  right 
lever,  the  rule  for  the  multiplication  of  a  fraction  by  a  frac- 
tion, or  the  definition  of  a  noun.  Many  of  the  larger 
truths  of  arithmetic,  grammar,  elementary  school  science, 
as  well  as  certain  of  those  of  history,  geography,  and  Htera- 
ture,  are  notions  of  this  kind  and  come  to  the  child  as 
essentially  new  class  concepts.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
individual  concept  is  a  concrete  idea  of  a  given  particular 
suffused  with  the  appreciation  that  certain  qualities  are 
distinctive  or  characteristic  —  for  example,  a  concrete  idea 
and  appreciation  of  the  distinctive  qualities  or  character- 
istics of  Niagara  Falls,  of  Chicago,  of  the  winter  at  Valley 
Forge,  of  the  Missouri  Compromise,  The  Village  Black- 
smith, or  The  Angelus.  The  larger  and  more  vital  truths  of 
geography,  history,  Hterature,  and  art  are  of  this  t}pe. 

From  this  point  of  view,  the  inductive  conceptual  process 
of  learning  may  be  defined  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of 
reasoning  in  and  through  which  general  meaning  and  value 
are  given  to  an  essentially  new  experience  or  group  of 
experiences,  and  the  meaning  and  value  given  symbolized 
to  the  self  by  an  individual  or  essentially  new  class  concept. 


no      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

(b)  The  deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning.  — 
The  following  are  examples  of  the  deductive  conceptual 
process  of  learning: 

A  child  is  confronted  with  the  question:  What  is  this? 
He  may  form  a  relatively  clear  concrete  idea  of  the  object 
before  him,  but  its  meaning  and  value  as  thus  symbolized 
are  in  nowise  satisfactory;  he  is  in  doubt  where  to  put  it, 
how  to  classify  it.  He  notes  its  long,  handle-Hke  part,  the 
sharp  and  hook-Hke  blade.  These  features,  suggest  the 
general  idea  of  a  knife,  and  he  decides  it  is  a  knife.  He  is 
still  perplexed,  however,  as  he  does  not  know  what  kind  of 
a  knife  it  is.  With  the  characteristics  of  the  given  object 
in  mind,  he  begins  to  search  among  his  general  ideas  of 
different  kinds  of  knives.  These  are  recalled  one  after 
another  and  dismissed.  Tardily  there  comes  forth  his 
concept  of  a  pruning  knife,  formed  some  five  or  six  years 
before,  but  never  in  the  meantime  brought  into  service. 
With  the  recall  of  this  concept,  there  is  sensed  a  feeling  of 
familiarity  with  respect  to  the  object  in  question.  Reflec- 
tion confirms  this  feehng  and  the  child  decides  that  the 
object  before  him  is  a  pruning  knife.  All  the  general 
meaning  and  value  acquired  by  such  knives  goes  over  to 
the  given  one,  and  he  feels  that  he  knows  the  object  and  be- 
comes conscious  of  a  given  attitude  toward  it. 

Or,  the  question  before  the  prospective  settler  may  be: 
Is  eastern  North  Dakota  adapted  to  general  farming? 
Three  conditions  are  known  to  him  as  essential  —  good 
soil,  long,  warm  summers,  and  an  abundance  of  rain.  With 
his  conception  of  good  soil  in  mind,  he  examines  the  soil  in 
question  and  pronounces  it  excellent;  he  studies  the  govern- 
ment and  state  reports  with  reference  to  temperature,  and 
finds  the  heat  conditions  good;  he  turns  to  the  same  reports 


PSYCHICAL   DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE    CHILD     iii 

with  regard  to  moisture,  and  noting  that  it  is  from  ten  to 
twenty  inches  per  annum,  decides  that  the  rainfall  is  suffi- 
cient. Drawing  together  the  insights  thus  gained,  he  con- 
cludes that  eastern  North  Dakota  is  adapted  to  general 
agriculture,  and  places  his  personal  estimate  upon  this 
section. 

Or,  a  boy  who  has  gained  in  formal  grammar  a  general 
idea  of  the  noun  and  its  uses,  also  a  conception  of  the  clause, 
comes  upon  a  number  of  illustrations  of  the  substantive 
clause  and  the  question  arises:  What  is  a  substantive  clause 
and  what  are  its  uses?  If  he  notes  carefully  each  of  the  given 
clauses  and  the  particular  way  in  which  each  is  employed, 
then  recalls  his  idea  of  the  noun  and  its  uses,  and  finally 
compares  the  given  clauses  and  the  way  they  are  employed 
with  what  he  knows  of  the  noun,  he  will  come  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  substantive  clause  is  one  which  takes  the 
place  of  and  is  used  in  the  sentence  as  a  noun. 

In  the  first  two  illustrations,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
general  meaning  and  value  given  the  particular  in  ques- 
tion was  assigned  in  the  Ught  of  a  previously  acquired  gen- 
eral idea  or  ideas.  It  will  also  be  observed  that,  in  the 
third  illustration,  the  general  idea  gained  was  acquired 
through  the  aid  of  conceptions  previously  obtained.  It  is 
this  gi\ang  of  general  meaning  and  value  to  a  particular 
experience  through  relating  it  to  or  interpreting  it  in  the 
light  of  a  class  concept,  or  the  giving  of  general  meaning 
and  value  to  a  group  of  experiences  through  the  aid  of 
previously  acquired  general  ideas,  that  is  distinctive  of  the 
deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning. 

The  experience  given  general  meaning  and  value  through 
this  process  of  learning  may  be  designated  as  nrd'.  There 
are  in  the  experiences  thus  worked  over  into  knowledge  no 


112        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

new  elements  in  the  sense  that  the  general  meaning  and 
value  of  these  have  never  before  been  appreciated,  but 
the  elements  are  combined  in  a  new  way  and  it  is  this 
that  makes  the  experience  a  new  one.  The  prospective 
settler  in  examining  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  of 
eastern  North  Dakota  discovers  no  new  elements,  but  he 
does  find  old  ones  under  new  conditions.  Likewise  with 
the  boy  trying  to  determine  the  meaning  and  function  of 
the  substantive  clause,  his  knowledge  of  the  noun  and  its 
uses  is  found  in  a  new  form. 

The  general  ideas  acquired  maybe  similarly  characterized. 
In  case  the  meaning  and  value  are  ascribed  to  a  particular 
experience,  a  new  concept  is  gained,  but  not  an  essentially 
new  one;  general  meaning  and  value  have  merely  been 
given  to  a  particular  —  to  eastern  North  Dakota,  for  ex- 
ample; or  a  particular  pruning  knife  has  been  suffused 
with  general  significance  and  put  in  its  class.  The  same 
is  true  when  meaning  and  value  are  given  to  a  group  of 
particulars,  such  as  a  number  of  type  substantive  clauses. 
To  be  sure,  in  the  illustration  given  the  child  gains  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  substantive  clause.  Yet  in  this  conception 
there  are  no  essentially  new  elements  of  general  meaning 
and  value  —  all  are  practically  included  in  his  idea  of  a 
noun.  These  elements  are,  however,  found  in  a  new  dress 
and  in  a  somewhat  different  combination,  and  it  is  this 
that  makes  the  concept  a  new  one.  Notwithstanding  a 
new  concept  contains  within  it  no  essentially  new  general 
elements  of  significance,  it  lies  apart  in  the  mind,  and 
though  the  child  may  appreciate  its  similarity  and  relation 
to  other  concepts,  it  is  never  confused  with  them. 

The  new  general  ideas  acquired  in  and  through  the 
deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  are  of  two  kinds  — 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD   .  113 

class  concepts,  and  particular  concepts.  The  class  con- 
cepts acquired  through  this  mode  of  learning  are  to  be 
defined  in  the  same  way  as  those  gained  through  the  corre- 
sponding inductive  process.  The  particular  concept,  how- 
ever, differs  from  the  individual  concept,  as  it  is  a  concrete 
idea  suffused  with  certain  general  elements  of  meaning  and 
value  which  connect  the  particular  in  question  with  a 
given  principle  or  class.  The  boy,  for  example,  not  only 
has,  as  the  result  of  his  thought,  a  concrete  idea  of  the 
pruning  knife,  but  he  also  recognizes  therein  certain  ele- 
ments of  general  meaning  and  value  belonging  to  all  pruning 
knives.  The  prospective  settler,  as  the  result  of  his  investi- 
gation, not  only  has  a  concrete  idea  of  eastern  North 
Dakota,  but  also  sees  therein  a  particular  expression  of  the 
general  conditions  of  agriculture.  A  considerable  portion 
of  the  larger  truths  of  the  different  school  subjects  are 
particular  or  new  class  concepts  and  come  to  the  child  in 
this  form. 

From  the  character  of  the  experience  given  meaning  and 
value,  and  from  the  character  of  the  ideas  acquired  through 
it,  the  deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  may  be 
defined  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of  reasoning  in  and 
through  which  general  meaning  and  value  are  given  to  a 
new  experience  or  to  a  group  of  7tew  experiences,  and  the 
general  meaning  and  value  given  symbolized  to  the  self 
by  a  particular  or  7iew  class  concept. 

(c)  Relation  between  processes  of  conceptual  learning. 
—  New  experience  is  given  general  meaning  and  value, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  the  Hght  of  previously  acquired  general 
ideas.  The  general  ideas  thus  employed  are  as  a  rule 
gained  through  the  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing.   This  suggests  the  fact  that  the  deductive  conceptual 


114      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

process  is  conditioned  in  its  workings  by  the  inductive,  as 
the  latter  supplies  the  basis  of  the  operations  of  the  former. 

An  essentially  new  experience,  given  general  meaning 
and  value  through  the  inductive  conceptual  process  of 
learning,  contains  within  it,  as  we  have  seen,  old  elements. 
In  so  far  as  this  is  true,  such  an  experience  is  given  general 
significance  through  the  corresponding  deductive  process, 
as  this  is  the  more  ready  and  economical  method.  There 
are  involved,  therefore,  in  the  inductive  conceptual  pro- 
cess of  learning  —  to  say  the  least  —  the  implicit  opera- 
tions of  the  deductive,  and  though  the  inductive  process 
is  not  essentially  dependent  upon  the  deductive,  it  is 
greatly  faciHtated  thereby. 

The  processes  of  conceptual  learning  are  therefore  to  be 
viewed  as  related,  and  each  is  to  be  regarded  as  conditioning 
the  operations  of  the  others. 

(d)  The  products  and  results  of  the  conceptual  process 
of  learning.  —  On  the  side  of  knowledge,  the  child  gains, 
through  the  conceptual  process  of  learning,  an  idea  of  him- 
self and  of  others  as  having  permanent  tendencies,  interests, 
and  needs;  he  gains  through  it  general  ideas  of  industry 
and  of  industrial  processes,  general  ideas  of  the  family,  of 
the  state,  of  his  rights  and  duties,  also  general  ideas  of 
classes  of  objects,  of  particular  things  and  situations,  and 
of  the  laws  and  principles  controlling  the  physical  world. 
In  short,  he  gains,  through  this  process  of  learning,  gen- 
eral ideas  of  himself,  of  the  social  world,  and  of  nature. 

The  concepts  acquired  are,  however,  not  static  or  change- 
less, embodying  once  for  all  the  elements  of  the  general 
significance  of  a  given  experience  or  of  a  group.  They 
are  gradual  acquisitions,  undergoing  development  and 
decay  according  as  there  is  change  in  the  child's  interests 


PSYCKICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD       115 

and  purposes.  For  the  general  idea  or  concept,  as  such,  is 
not  primarily  dependent  upon  experience,  but  upon  those 
elements  of  experience  selected  as  of  importance  under  the 
particular  conditions  of  life  and  assigned  general  meaning 
and  value.  A  given  general  idea  or  concept  may  therefore 
be  one  thing  today  and  another  tomorrow.  Nor  is  the 
concept  expressive  of  the  general  significance  of  an  experi- 
ence or  of  a  group  necessarily  the  same  for  the  child  as  for 
the  adult;  indeed,  it  may  be  and  doubtless  is  quite  different, 
for  what  seems  of  importance  to  the  one  is  not  always  so 
for  the  other.  The  question  for  the  teacher,  therefore, 
is  this:  What  is  the  content  of  the  general  ideas  of  the 
child  at  each  stage  of  his  development  and  what  content 
can  and  should  be  given  them? 

On  the  side  of  action,  the  conceptual  process  of  learning 
results  not  only  in  enabling  the  child  —  upon  the  basis  of 
the  general  ideas  of  the  purposes  and  ends  of  life,  and  of 
the  conceptions  of  the  natural  world  acquired  —  to  con- 
trol and  direct  his  actions  in  essentially  new  and  uniform 
ways,  but  also  results  in  enabling  him  —  in  the  light  of  the 
conceptions  attained  more  particularly  through  the  de- 
ductive mode  —  to  adjust  himself  with  ease  and  security 
to  particular  sit'^ations  and  conditions.  In  short,  the 
conceptual  process  of  learning  enables  the  child  to  direct 
his  actions  in  the  light  of  laws,  principles,  and  ideals. 

5.  The  Processes  of  Learning  and  Psychical  Development. 
—  Such,  in  general,  are  the  perceptual  and  the  conceptual 
processes  in  and  through  which  the  child  acquires  knowl- 
edge. These  processes  are  an  essential  part  of  the  larger 
one  in  and  through  which  the  child  develops  psychically. 
For  it  is  the  capacity  to  learn  and  the  acquisition  and  use 
of  knowledge  that  condition  psychical  development 


ii6      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

§5.  The  Process:    The  Acquisition  and  Use  of 
Knowledge  and  Will  Development 

Further  light  will  be  thrown  upon  the  process  in  and 
through  which  the  child  develops  psychically,  if  the  rela- 
tion between  the  acquisition  and  use  of  knowledge  and 
the  development  of  the  will  is  examined. 

Will  development  implies  the  giving  of  content  to  and  the 
control  and  direction  of  impulse. 

I .  The  Giving  of  Content  to  Impulse.  —  The  giving  of 
content  to  impulse  presupposes,  first,  the  presence  in  the 
mind  of  the  child  of  the  experience  to  be  derived  from  the 
impelUngs  of  the  impulse  and  from  its  expression  in  action. 
To  illustrate,  the  condition  of  giving  content  to  the  play 
instinct  is  that  the  child  feel  the  instinctive  inclination  to 
play  and  have  the  experiences  resulting  from  playing  dif- 
ferent games.  In  case  of  the  acquisitive  instinct,  the  child 
must  have  the  sensation  of  being  impelled  to  collect  and 
the  sense-impressions  arising  from  making  and  possessing 
given  collections.  If  it  is  the  constructive  instinct,  the 
child  must  feel  its  impellings,  and  have  the  experiences 
derived  from  reacting  upon  given  things,  from  the  activities 
involved  in  the  construction  of  given  objects,  and  from  the 
use  and  enjoyment  of  the  things  made. 

Second,  in  giving  content  to  impulse  there  is  implied, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  meaning  be  given  the  experiences 
derived  from  its  impellings  and  from  its  expression  in 
action,  and  that  these  experiences  and  their  meaning  be 
associated  with  the  impulse.  For  example,  by  ascribing 
meaning  to  the  experiences  derived  from  the  instinct  to 
play  and  its  gratification,  one  comes  to  know  its  impelHngs, 
to  know  the  actions  involved  and  the  pleasure  to  be  had 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD      117 

from  a  particular  expression  in  playing  a  given  game;  and 
it  is  the  reference  of  this  knowledge  to  the  play  instinct  that 
gives  it  content.  Similarly,  through  ascribing  meaning  to 
the  experiences  derived  from  the  constructive  instinct, 
one  comes  to  know  its  impellings,  learns  what  activities 
are  involved  in  a  particular  expression,  learns  how  to 
construct  and  use  given  things,  and  what  satisfaction  is  to 
be  had  from  them;  in  short,  the  constructive  instinct  is 
given  content  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is  bound  up  with 
such  knowledge.  Likewise,  by  giving  meaning  to  the 
experiences  arising  from  the  acquisitive  instinct  and  its 
expression,  knowledge  is  gained  of  the  instinct,  of  what 
can  be  acquired,  of  the  activities  involved,  and  of  the 
pleasure  to  be  derived  from  a  particular  possession;  and  to 
associate  the  knowledge  thus  acquired  with  the  construc- 
tive instinct  is  to  give  it  content;  so  with  all  impulses. 

Third,  there  is  unphed,  on  the  other  hand,  that  value 
be  ascribed  to  the  experiences  arising  from  the  impellings  of 
the  impulse  and  from  its  expression  in  action,  and  that  the 
value  assigned  be  associated  with  the  impulse.  To  illus- 
trate, by  giving  value  to  the  experiences  had  from  the 
acquisitive  instinct  and  its  satisfaction,  one  gains  knowl- 
edge of  the  worth  of  these  experiences;  and  to  the  extent 
to  which  this  instinct  is  bound  up  with  the  ideas  of  the 
worth  of  the  experiences  derived  from  it,  to  that  extent 
it  has  content.  In  like  manner,  the  constructive  instinct 
acquires  content  through  relating  to  it  the  ideas  of  worth 
gained  from  giving  value  to  the  experience  derived  from  the 
instinct  and  its  expression.  The  value  assigned  an  impulse 
thus  depends  upon  the  worth  ascribed  to  the  experiences 
arising  from  the  impulse  and  its  issuance  in  action. 

Apart  from  its  expression,  the  giving  of  content  to  impulse 


ii8      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

consists,  then,  in  assigning  meaning  and  value  to  the  ex- 
periences arising  from  its  issuance  in  action  and  in  referring 
the  meaning  and  value  ascribed  to  the  impulse.  To  give 
meaning  and  value  to  experience  is,  as  we  have  seen,  to 
acquire  knowledge.  An  impulse  is  therefore  given  content 
through  gaining  knowledge  of  it,  of  the  actions  and  of  the 
experiences  to  which  it  leads,  and  of  the  worth  of  the  ex- 
perience derived  from  its  impelKngs  and  issuance  in  action, 
and  is  consequently  conditioned  by  the  processes  in  and 
through  which  knowledge  is  acquired.  In  other  words,  it 
is  through  the  learning  processes  that  impulse  is  given 
content. 

2.  The  Control  and  Direction  of  Impulse.  —  To  control 
an  impulse  is  to  be  able  to  inhibit  or  confirm  its  expression, 
and  to  direct  an  impulse  is  to  guide  its  issuance  in  action. 

An  impulse  is  confirmed  or  inhibited  through  the  child 
identifying  or  not  identifying  himself  with  the  impulse  and 
thereby  reenforcing  or  not  reenforcing  it  with  the  other 
forces  of  his  nature.  To  illustrate,  in  early  Hfe  there  is 
no  conscious  control  of  impulse,  the  strongest  one  of  the 
moment  inhibits  all  others  and  issues  in  action.  Take  for 
example  hunger.  The  infant  eats  providing  there  is  oppor- 
tunity whenever  it  is  hungry.  With  the  giving  of  content 
to  hunger  this  is  not  so.  By  virtue  of  its  content,  there 
has  been  absorbed  into  the  impulse  a  variety  of  ideas  of 
its  meaning  and  value.  Thereafter,  upon  the  entrance  of 
the  impulse  into  consciousness,  these  ideas  are  revived  and 
especially  ideas  of  its  value,  and  they  tend  to  check  its 
immediate  expression.  If,  in  view  of  the  revived  ideas  of 
value,  the  things  to  eat  and  the  surroundings  at  hand  seem 
appropriate  to  the  satisfaction  of  hunger  in  a  way  to  be  of 
worth,  he  identifies  himself  with  the  thought  of  satisfying 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD     iiQ 

his  hunger  with  the  things  and  under  the  surroundings  in 
question.  The  idea  of  gratifying  his  hunger  with  the  means 
available  symbolizes  to  the  child  the  value  of  a  given 
expression  of  the  hunger  instinct,  and  is  dynamic,  and 
when  the  idea  is  reenforced  by  a  sense  of  harmony  with  the 
child's  habits,  tastes,  and  interests,  it  becomes  doubly  so. 
The  thought  of  satisfying  hunger  in  the  given  way  thus 
reenforced  reacts  upon  the  impulse,  and  the  impulse  being 
thus  augmented  in  its  impellings,  passes  over  into  action. 
If,  however,  the  things  to  eat  and  the  surroundings  at 
hand  do  not  seem  suited  to  the  satisfaction  of  hunger  in  a 
desirable  manner,  the  child  ddes  not  identify  himself  with 
the  idea  of  gratifying  it  in  the  given  way,  and  the  impulse 
is  inhibited. 

To  illustrate  further:  Though  in  later  childhood  various 
impulses  of  different  natural  strength  may  at  the  same 
time  excite  to  action  —  for  example,  that  of  self-preserva- 
tion and  the  moral-reHgious  impulse  —  the  expression  of 
these  under  the  given  conditions  may  have  different  values. 
That  of  the  weakest  naturally  may  have  the  greatest  worth, 
as  the  idea  of  the  self  implied  in  its  issuance  in  action  may 
harmonize  best  with  the  child's  ideals,  and  consequently 
calls  forth  the  most  reenforcing  tendencies.  As  a  result, 
the  child  identifies  himself  with  the  naturally  weaker 
impulse,  the  forces  of  his  Ufa  as  then  organized  drain  off 
into  it,  and  being  thus  augmented,  it  passes  over  into  action 
and  inhibits  all  oth^r  impulses. 

It  is  well  to  remark,  in  this  connection,  that  the  medium 
of  confirmation  or  inhibition  is  always  an  idea  —  an  idea 
symbolizing  the  value  of  the  probable  experience  to  be 
derived  from  the  expression  of  an  impulse  in  a  given  way. 
Such  ideas  are  centers  of  control. 


I20      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

On  the  other  hand,  the  basis  of  the  direction  of  impulse 
is  knowledge  of  what  is  involved  in  its  issuance  in  action. 
Through  the  giving  of  content  to  an  impulse,  say  the  artistic, 
the  child  comes  to  know,  as  we  have  seen,  the  activities 
involved  in  different  expressions,  to  know  the  means  to 
be  utilized,  and  to  know  what  is  produced.  Later,  when  the 
child  desires  to  give  a  particular  expression  to  this  impulse, 
or  to  create  a  given  thing  of  art,  he  is  able,  through  the 
control  of  his  actions  on  the  basis  of  knowledge  previously 
acquired,  so  to  direct  the  impulse  in  action  that  the  desired 
thing  is  produced.  Similarly  with  all  impulses;  they  are 
directed  in  their  expression  •on  the  basis  of  knowledge  of 
the  activities  and  of  the  means  involved  therein. 
f  Since  impulse  is  controlled  in  view  of  ideas  of  the  value 
of  the  experience  to  be  derived,  and  is  directed  in  its  is- 
suance in  action,  in  view  of  knowledge  of  the  activities 
and  means  involved  in  a  given  expression,  the  control 
and  direction  of  impulse  presuppose  a  certain  content.  An 
impulse  acquires  content,  as  we  have  seen,  through  mean- 
ing and  value  being  ascribed  to  the  experience  arising  from 
its  issuance  in  action  and  through  the  reference  of  the 
meaning  and  the  value  given  to  the  impulse.  Meaning 
and  value  are  ascribed  to  experience,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
and  through  the  learning  processes.  The  control  and  direc- 
tion of  impulse  imphes,  therefore,  no  other  processes  than 
those  involved  in  the  child  learning  or  acquiring  knowledge. 

3.  The  Process  of  Will  Development,  —r  Will  development 
not  only  implies  the  control  and  direction  of  impulse, 
but  also  consists  in  exercising  progressively  better  control 
and  direction. 

The  control  and  direction  of  impulse  rests,  as  we  have 
seen,  upon  its  content;  the  giving  of  content  rests,  in  turn. 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHH^D      121 

upon  the  learning  processes.  All  that  is  implied  in  will 
development,  other  than  the  expression  of  impulse  and  the 
use  of  knowledge  in  better  and  better  control  and  direction, 
is  therefore  supplied  by  the  learning  processes. 

The  process  in  and  through  which  the  will  develops 
may  consequently  be  characterized  as  one  in  which  its 
elements  —  the  primal  impulses  and  related  instincts  — 
are  given  expression  in  action,  the  resulting  ex-periences 
ascribed  meaning  and  value,  or  worked  over  into  knowledge 
through  the  learning  processes,  and  the  knowledge  thus 
acquired  used  in  exercising  progressively  better  control 
and  direction  over  the  future  expression  of  its  elements. 
To  illustrate,  a  boy  moved  by  the  constructive  instinct 
plays  with  materials  and  tools,  but  constructs  nothing  of 
worth  to  himself  or  to  others.  From  these  experiences, 
however,  he  learns  about  different  woods  and  how  they  can 
be  used,  about  different  tools  and  how  to  handle  them. 
With  the  return  of  the  impulse,  instead  of  following  the 
incHnation  merely  to  play,  he  consciously  uses  the  knowl- 
edge gained  of  woods  and  tools  in  so  directing  his  activities 
as  to  make  a  towel  rack.  Or,  the  youth  stirred  by  sympathy 
and  the  religious  impulse  gives  indiscriminately  of  his  time 
and  money.  From  experience  he  learns  that,  in  cases, 
instead  of  doing  the  recipient  good,  he  really  does  him  harm. 
He  uses  this  knowledge  in  the  future  to  exercise  better 
control  over  his  charitable  impulses  and  in  directing  their 
expression  to  the  advantage  of  the  recipient. 

4.  The  Law  oj  Will  Development .  —  In  view  of  the  nature 
of  the  process  through  which  the  will  develops,  the  develop- 
ment of  a  particular  will  is  conditioned  by  the  expression 
given  it,  by  the  character  of  the  resulting  experience,  by 
the  meaning  and  value  ascribed  this,  and  by  the  use  made 


122      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

of  the  knowledge  thus  gained  in  controlhng  and  directing 
the  future  expression  of  its  elements. 

5.  Stages  of  Will  Development. — The  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  will  were  suggested  in  our  study  of 
the  periods  in  child  development;  these  are  the  stages  of 
the  assimilative,  the  perceptual,  the  conceptual,  and  the 
systematic  will.  In  view  of  the  relation  existing  between 
the  processes  of  learning  and  of  will  development,  the 
grounds  of  this  division  are  not  far  to  seek.  Each  separate 
process  of  learning  enables  the  child  to  gain  a  distinct  type 
of  knowledge  and  to  give  a  distinct  type  of  content  to  his 
impulses;  their  control  and  direction  upon  the  basis  of  this 
type  of  knowledge  gives  rise  to  a  distinct  stage  in  the 
development  of  the  will.  We  have,  in  consequence,  cor- 
responding to  the  assimilative  process  of  learning  and  the 
products  thereof,  the  assimilative  stage  in  will  develop- 
ment, corresponding  to  the  perceptual  process,  the  percep- 
tual, and  so  on  to  the  highest  stage  of  will  development 
—  the  systematic.  The  problem  of  the  teacher,  from  this 
point  of  view,  is  to  lead  the  child  from  the  lowest  process 
of  learning  —  the  assimilative  —  to  the  highest  —  the  sys- 
tematic— and  thereby  provide  for  leading  him  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  stage  of  will  development,  that  is, 
from  the  stage  of  the  assimilative  to  that  of  the  syste- 
matic will. 

6.  Will  Development  and  Character  Development.  —  Char- 
acter is  life  crystallized  in  well-defined  habits,  in  fixed  lines 
of  conduct.  What  one's  habits  are,  what  one's  conduct 
is  depends,  however,  upon  the  control  and  direction  he 
chooses  to  exercise  over  his  impulses  or  over  his  will.  Char- 
acter is  therefore  conditioned  by  the  expression  and  direc- 
tion given  to  impulse,  or  is  conditioned  by  the  development 


'PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHH^D       123 

given  the  will.     Will  development  is  consequently  character 
development,  and  to  form  the  will  is  to  mould  character. 

§6.  The   Process:    The  Acquisition  of   Knowledge 
AND  THE  Development  of  the  Intellect 

Still  further  light  will  be  thrown  upon  the  process  in  and 
through  which  the  child  develops  psychically,  if  the  relation 
of  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  the  development  of 
the  intellect  is  considered.  The  intellect  develops  on  the 
side  of  form  or  of  cognitive  functions,  that  is,  with  respect 
to  the  power  of  attention,  memory,  imagination,  reason- 
ing, and  on  the  side  of  content  or  knowledge. 

I.  TJte  Development  of  Mental  Content  or  Knowledge.  — 
Knowledge  is,  as  we  have  seen,  experience  that  has  been 
given  meaning  and  value,  and  the  ascribed  meaning  and 
value  symbolized  to  the  self  by  concrete  or  general  ideas. 
It  develops  in  two  directions,  —  in  breadth,  arid  in,  depth 
and  organization,  —  that  is,  it  develops  with  respect  to 
the  number  of  things  about  which  we  have  knowledge,  and 
it  develops  with  respect  to  the  depth  of  our  insight  into 
them  and  in  the  way  in  which  these  insights  are  related. 

Knowledge  develops  with  respect  to  breadth  through 
the  child  giving  meaning  and  value  to  a  wider  and  wider 
range  of  experience.  To  illustrate,  the  child's  knowledge 
is  growing  in  breadth  when  he  learns  of  what  is  in  the  home, 
then  of  what  is  in  the  neighborhood,  then  of  what  is  in  the 
locahty  or  community,  and  so  on  out  into  the  larger  world. 

The  child  learns,  as  was  suggested,  through  four  sepa- 
rate processes.  Each  supplies  him  with  a  distinct  type  of 
insight  and  a  particular  basis  of  organizing  his  knowledge. 
To  confine  our  illustrations  to  the  processes  studied,  through 
the  perceptual,  the  child  acquires  concrete  ideas  or  concrete 


124      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

idea-wholes.  He  may  gain  a  concrete  idea  of  an  apple, 
of  a  peach,  or  of  an  orange,  and  each  of  these  ideas  may 
serve  as  the  basis  for  classifying  and  relating  a  goodly  num- 
ber of  concrete  ideas  of  different  apples,  peaches,  or  oranges, 
but  forms  no  basis  for  bringing  together  his  knowledge  of 
several  kinds  of  fruits. 

The  insight  afforded  the  child  through  the  conceptual 
process  of  learning  is  of  a  different  type.  Through  this 
process,  he  gains  insight  into  the  common  and  essential 
elements  in  the  meaning  and  value  of  a  class,  or  into  the 
distinctive  and  characteristic  elements  in  the  meaning  and 
value  of  a  particular.  The  child's  knowledge  is  thus  deep- 
ened as  he  gains  ideas  of  general  meaning  and  value. 
Furthermore,  these  ideas  of  general  meaning  and  value 
serve  as  the  basis  for  a  higher  organization  of  his  knowledge. 
The  child  is  able,  for  example,  upon  the  basis  of  his  con- 
ception of  fruit  to  associate  and  relate  all  that  he  may  have 
learned  about  particular  apples,  peaches,  or  oranges;  he 
is  able  to  see  these  different  kinds  of  fruit  in  relation  to  one 
central,  organizing  idea.  Knowledge  develops  with  respect 
to  depth  and  organization,  therefore,  according  as  experi- 
ence is  given  meaning  and  value  through  higher  and  higher 
processes  of  learning. 

The  process  in  and  through  which  the  intellect  develops 
on  the  side  of  content  may  then  be  characterized  as  one 
in  which  experience  of  a  wider  and  wider  range  is  given 
meaning  and  value  and  this  given  meaning  and  value 
through  higher  and  higher  processes  of  learning. 

2.  The  Development  of  the  Cognitive  Functions.  —  "The 
simple  fact  is,"  writes  Dewey ,^  "there  is  no  isolated  faculty 
of  observation,  or  memory,  or  reasoning  any  more  than 

1  Dewey,  Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education,  p.  13. 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD      125 

there  is  an  original  faculty  of  blacksmithing,  carpentering, 
or  steam  engineering.  These  faculties  (that  is,  black- 
smithing,  etc.)  simply  mean  that  particular  impulses  and 
habits  have  been  coordinated  and  formed  to  accomphsh 
certain  definite  kinds  of  work.  Precisely  the  same  thing 
holds  of  the  so-called  mental  faculties.  They  are  not 
powers  in  themselves,  but  are  such  only  with  reference  to 
the  ends  to  which  they  are  put,  the  services  which  they 
have  to  perform."  In  short,  cognitive  functions  are  not 
"mental  powers  or  faculties"  existing  from  infancy,  but 
particular  uses  of  the  intellect  developed  with  reference 
to  the  needs  of  hfe. 

In  life  under  given  conditions,  there  is  need  of  knowledge. 
The  acquisition  of  this  necessitates  the  exercise  of  the  intel- 
lect in  the  learning  processes  in  given  ways,  and  it  is  the 
continued  use  of  the  intellect  in  given  ways  that  causes  the 
rise  and  development  of  different  cognitive  functions.  To 
illustrate,  attention  develops  through  exercise  in  observa- 
tion ;  the  scientist  acquires  a  given  type  of  attention  through 
observation  of  a  given  kind;  the  sailor  by  attending  to  a 
different  kind  of  thing  acquires  another  t3^e.  The  imagina- 
tion develops  by  '^se  in  representing  things  real  and  ideal; 
the  artist  develops  one  type  through  picturing  things  of  a 
given  character,  me  mathematician  another. 

The  process  in  and  through  which  the  intellect  develops 
on  the  side  of  cognitive  functions  may  therefore  be  charac- 
terized as  one  in  which  it  is  employed  in  different  ways  in 
the  learning  processes  in  the  acquisition  of  the  knowledge 
needed  in  the  living  of  Hfe  to  the  full  under  given  conditions. 

3 .  Relation  between  Development  of  Content  and  of  Cognitive 
Functions.  —  The  exercise  of  the  intellect  in  giving  meaning 
and  value  to  experience  results,  as  we  have  seen,  in  knowl- 


126      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

edge  and  in  its  development,  and  the  use  of  the  intellect 
therein  causes  the  rise  and  development  of  cognitive 
functions.  Consequently,  to  think  of  the  development  of 
mental  content  apart  from  that  of  cognitive  functions  is  to 
lose  sight  of  the  mental  activity  involved  in  the  rise  and 
development  of  knowledge,  and  to  think  of  the  development 
of  cognitive  functions  without  regard  to  a  corresponding 
development  of  content  is  to  ignore  the  product  of  mental 
action.  For  there  is  no  knowledge  apart  from  the  activity 
of  the  mental  functions,  and  vice  versa;  each  without  the 
other  is  meaningless.  The  development  of  the  one  is  there- 
fore implied  in  that  of  the  other. 

The  significance  of  this  relationship  only  becomes 
apparent,  however,  upon  further  examination.  The  ac- 
tivity of  the  cognitive  functions  in  giving  meaning  and 
value  to  a  particular  type  of  experience  yields  a  given  t3^e 
of  knowledge  —  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  history,  geog- 
raphy, or  drawing.  But  can  we  say,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  acquisition  of  a  given  kind  of  knowledge  —  like 
arithmetic,  history,  or  geography  — ■  results  in  the  rise  and 
development  of  given  mental  functions? 

If  we  accept  the  theory  that  all  activ'ly  of  the  intellect 
is  conditioned  by  the  brain,  that  develop ment  of  the  intel- 
lect on  the  physiological  side  is  but  the  fixing  of  brain-cells 
to  react  in  a  given  way,  and  that  brain-cells  are  subject  to 
the  law  of  habit,  —  if  we  accept  these  theories,  we  are 
forced  to  conclude  that  the  giving  of  meaning  and  value 
to  a  particular  tj^pe  of  experience,  or  the  acquisition  of  a 
given  kind  of  knowledge  —  like  arithmetic,  or  history  — 
results,  on  the  side  of  the  brain,  in  the  fixing  of  certain 
cells  to  react  in  a  particular  way,  or  results  in  the  rise  and 
development  of  given  cognitive  functions. 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD     127 

The  import  of  the  relationship  between  the  development 
of  the  form  and  content  of  the  intellect  is,  then,  that  the 
development  of  the  one  is  reciprocally  conditioned  and 
determined  by  that  of  the  other.  In  consequence,  the 
development  of  given  cognitive  functions  impHes  the  giving 
of  meaning  and  value  to  particular  types  of  experience, 
and  the  acquisition  of  particular  kinds  of  knowledge  fosters 
the  rise  and  development  of  given  cognitive  functions. 
The  cognitive  functions  developed  will  therefore  vary  with 
the  character  of  the  experience  worked  over  into  knowledge. 

4.  Definition  of  Cognitive  Function.  —  This  reciprocal 
and  parallel  development  of  the  form  and  content  of  the 
intellect  makes  necessary  a  correcting  and  broadening  of  the 
common  idea  of  a  mental  faculty  or  cognitive  function. 
Attention,  memory,  and  imagination  are,  to  be  sure,  ways 
in  which  the  intellect  works.  We  do  not,  however,  have 
attention,  memory,  or  imagination  as  general  mental 
powers:  we  have  attentions,  memories,  imaginations, 
corresponding  to  given  types  of  mental  content.  That  is, 
there  is  no  general  function  of  attention  through  which 
all  things  are  observed,  but  innumerable  functions  of 
attention  each  developed  through  attending  to  a  particular 
kind  of  ..xperience.  We  do  not  have  a  general  power  of 
memory  through  which  all  things  are  remembered,  but 
a  variety  of  these,  each  developed  with  reference  to  remem- 
bering given  things.  Nor  do  we  have  a  single  power  of 
imagination  which  serves  alike  to  represent  every  kind  of 
experience,  but  many,  each  developed  in  connection  with 
the  representation  of  experience  of  a  given  character. 
Attention,  memory,  imagination,  etc.,  as  functions  of  the 
intellect  are,  therefore,  merely  class  terms  employed  to 
designate   a   variety   of   similar   functions,   developed   in 


128      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

connection  with  giving  meaning  and  value  to  particular 
types  of  experience. 

5.  Use  and  Development  of  Cognitive  Function  Particular, 
not  General.  —  This  view  of  a  cognitive  function  gives  rise 
to  a  fundamental  question.  Can  a  cognitive  function 
developed  through  the  acquisition  of  a  given  kind  of  knowl- 
edge be  used  in  gaining  knowledge  of  a  radically  different 
character?  To  be  definite,  can  mental  power  gained  in 
arithmetic  be  used  in  learning  history?  The  answer  of 
modern  psychology  is  something  like  this : 

In  so  far  as  the  type  of  knowledge  to  be  acquired  is  similar 
to  that  in  connection  with  which  the  given  function  was 
developed,  to  that  extent  it  is  of  use.  This  is  true  because 
of  the  similarity  of  mental  work  involved  in  the  acquisition 
of  the  two  kinds  of  knowledge.  In  so  far,  however,  as  the 
knowledge  to  be  gained  is  different  from  that  in  connection 
with  which  the  function  was  developed,  to  that  extent  it 
is  useless.  For  as  Hinsdale^  puts  it,  "No  matter  what  kind 
of  mental  activities  we  consider,  they  conform  to  the  causes 
that  excite  them.  Like  the  dyer's  hand,  the  mental  faculties 
are  subdued  to  what  they  work  in." 

The  educational  implication  is  that  it  is  impossible  to 
develop  general  cognitive  functions  or  mental  powers  — 
useful  under  all  conditions  —  through  the  teaching  of  two 
or  three  subjects,  for  cognitive  functions  develop  through 
use  in  given  ways  and  with  reference  to  particular  situations. 
To  foster  the  rise  and  development  of  the  cognitive  functions 
needed  in  the  adjustment  of  Hfe  to  present  social  conditions, 
the  curriculum  must,  therefore,  contain  a  variety  of  studies 
and  activities. 

6.  The  Law  of  Mental  Development.  —  Since   the  de- 

1  Hinsdale,  Educational  Review,  viii,  p.  136. 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD      129 

velopment  of  the  intellect  both  on  the  side  of  content  and 
of  cognitive  functions  depends  upon  the  range  and  kinds  of 
experience  given  meaning  and  value  through  the  different 
processes  of  learning,  the  development  of  the  intellect  with 
respect  both  to  form  and  content  is  conditioned  by  the 
range  and  character  of  the  experience  worked  over  into 
knowledge  through  its  activity  on  the  different  levels  of 
learning.  Or,  as  stated  by  Schurman,^  "The  mind  grows 
by  what  it  feeds  on." 

7.  Stages  in  the  Development  oj  the  hitellect.  —  There 
are  four  stages  in  the  development  of  the  intellect.  These 
were  tacitly  recognized  in  our  consideration  of  the  intellect 
as  the  medium  of  controlling  and  directing  impulse,  also  in 
our  discussion  of  the  periods  of  psychical  development,  and 
likewise  in  our  study  of  the  processes  of  learning  and  of  the 
stages  in  will  development.  The  stages  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  intellect  may  be  designated  as  the  assimila- 
tive, the  perceptual,  the  conceptual,  and  the  systematic. 
Though  distinct,  these  stages  are  reciprocally  related;  and 
although  all  the  cognitive  functions  are  to  be  found  im- 
pHcitly  or  expHcitly  in  each,  the  nature  and  the  activity 
of  respective  ones  vary  with  the  period,  and  there  is  a  cor- 
responding variation  in  the  learning  process  and  in  the 
view  of  the  self  and  of  the  world  afforded.  Of  these 
stages,  the  assimilative  is  the  lowest  and  the  systematic 
the  highest,  and  it  is  the  work  of  the  teacher,  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  intellect,  to  advance  the  child  from  the 
one  to  the  other. 

8.  Intellectual  Development  and  Character .  —  Character, 
as  we  have  seen,  is  determined  by  the  fixed  ways  in  which 
the  individual  chooses  to  act.    The  particular  way  in  which 

^  Schurman,  School  Review,  ii,  p.  93. 


130      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

he  chooses  to  act  depends,  at  least  in  part,  upon  his  knowl- 
edge of  his  nature,  needs,  and  ends.  Relatively  complete 
knowledge  of  one's  nature,  needs,  and  ends  implies  a  high 
degree  of  intelligence.  Character  development  presupposes, 
therefore,  intellectual  development,  and  though  the  latter 
does  not  necessarily  lead  to  the  former,  it  is  the  basis  and 
the  condition  of  the  former.  A  completely  rounded  char- 
acter implies,  then,  a  completely  developed  intellect. 

§7.  The  Process:  Will  and  Intellectual 
Development 

Though  the  will  and  the  intellect  are  separate  aspects 
of  psychical  life  and  have  different  functions  therein,  from 
the  relation  of  their  development  to  the  acquisition  and  use 
of  knowledge,  it  is  apparent  that  they  do  not  develop  one 
apart  from  the  other.  For  the  will  develops,  on  the  one 
hand,  as  the  experiences  arising  from  the  expression  of  its 
elements  are  given  meaning  and  value,  and  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired  utilized  in  better  and  better  control  and 
direction  of  their  future  expression,  whereas  the  intellect 
develops,  on  the  other  hand,  through  working  over  into 
knowledge  the  experiences  resultant  upon  the  issuance  of 
the  will  in  action  and  through  giving  meaning  and  value 
to  experience  upon  higher  and  higher  levels  of  learning. 
Will  development  implies,  therefore,  that  the  intellect  is 
being  developed  with  respect  to  both  form  and  content, 
while  intellectual  development  impHes  that  the  will  is  being 
expressed  and  formed.  To  be  sure,  the  child  does  not 
develop  equally  and  in  all  directions  at  the  same  time. 
Still,  the  development  of  the  will  involves  normally  a 
corresponding  intellectual  development,  and  vice  versa, 
for  the  will  can  not  be  wrenched  out  of  all  relation  to  the 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD      131 

intellect  and  be  formed  independently  of  it,  nor  can  the 
intellect  be  isolated  from  the  will  and  be  properly  cultured. 
Consequently,  the  development  of  the  will  and  of  the 
intellect  are  to  be  viewed  as  the  two  aspects  of  a  single  or 
unitary  development,  and  to  be  regarded  as  reciprocally 
related  and  conditioned  therein. 

§  8.  Unity  in  Process  of  Psychical  Development 

The  experience,  the  working  of  this  over  into  knowledge, 
and  the  use  of  this  knowledge,  resulting  in  will  develop- 
ment, is  not  one  kind  of  experience  and  the  way  it  is  given 
significance  one  process  of  learning;  nor  is  the  experience 
and  the  giving  of  meaning  and  value  to  it,  resulting  in 
intellectual  development,  another  kind  of  experience  and  a 
different  process  of  learning.  The  experience  in  both  cases 
is  the  same  and  this  is  given  meaning  and  value  through  the 
same  processes.  Consequently,  what  is  will  development, 
from  one  point  of  view,  is,  from  another,  intellectual  devel- 
opment, and  the  process  involved  therein  —  whether 
viewed  from  the  side  of  the  will  or  of  the  intellect  —  is  the 
same.  The  development  of  the  will  and  of  the  intellect 
are  therefore  not  only  reciprocally  related  and  conditioned, 
but  their  development  occurs  in  and  through  one  and  the 
same  process. 

§  9.  The   Process   of   Psychical   Development 

The  process  in  and  through  which  the  child  develops  psy- 
chically may  therefore  be  characterized  as  one  in  which  the 
will  in  its  elements  is  given  expression,  the  resulting  expe- 
rience worked  over  through  the  medium  of  the  intellect  into 
knowledge,  and  this  knowledge  used  in  the  better  and  better 
control  and  direction  of  the  future  expression  of  the  will. 


132      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

§  lo.  Educational  Inferences 

To  attain  the  end  for  which  our  study  of  how  the  child 
develops  psychically  was  undertaken,  it  remains  to  bring 
the  insights  gained  into  relation  to  the  work  of  education. 

1.  Psychical  Development:  Will  and  Intellectual  Devel- 
opment. —  Since  there  are  two  factors  involved,  education, 
if  it  would  foster  the  psychical  development  of  the  child  as 
a  whole,  must  seek  to  develop  both  the  will  and  the  intellect. 

2.  Will  and  Intellectual  Development  Conditioned  by 
Periods  of  Psychical  Life.  —  Since  the  psychical  develop- 
ment of  the  child  falls  into  distinct  stages,  —  each  having 
its  particular  will  and  intellectual  characteristics,  —  and 
the  development  of  each  lower  stage  conditions  that  in 
each  higher,  it  is  the  work  of  education  to  give  to  the  will 
and  to  the  intellect  in  each  period  the  development  appro- 
priate to  the  period,  appropriate  to  secure  a  normal  de- 
velopment in  the  succeeding  period,  and  appropriate  to 
secure  the  will  and  intellectual  development  desired. 

3.  The  Condition  of  Will  Development.  —  Since  the  de- 
velopment of  the  will  is  conditioned  by  the  expression  given 
its  elements,  by  the  character  of  the  resulting  experience, 
by  the  meaning  and  value  assigned  this,  and  by  the  way 
the  knowledge  thus  attained  is  used  in  controlling  and 
directing  the  future  expression  of  the  will,  education  must 
seek  to  give  the  will  that  expression,  to  supply  the  conditions 
of  acquiring  that  resultant  experience,  of  giving  that  mean- 
ing and  value  to  this,  and  of  making  such  use  of  the  derived 
knowledge  as  to  secure  the  desired  will  development. 

4.  The  Condition  of  Intellectual  Developmetit.  —  Since 
the  development  of  the  intellect  is  conditioned  both  on  the 
side  of  form  and  content  by  the  character  of  the  experience 


PSYCHICAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   CHILD      133 

given  meaning  and  value,  education  must  seek  to  supply 
such  experience  and  to  secure  the  giving  of  such  meaning 
and  value  to  this  experience  as  is  impUed  in  the  desired 
intellectual  development. 

5.  Psychical  Development  Unitary  Process.  —  Since  the 
development  of  the  will  and  of  the  intellect  are  reciprocally 
related  and  conditioned,  and  since  they  develop  in  and 
through  a  unitary  process,  education  should  not  seek  to 
develop  the  one  apart  from  the  other,  nor  the  will  through 
one  process  and  the  intellect  through  another,  but  must 
seek  to  develop  each  in  relation  to  the  other,  and  in  and 
through  the  same  process. 

6.  The  Acquisition  of  Knowledge  and  Psychical  Develop- 
ment. —  Since  the  development  of  both  the  will  and  the 
intellect  is  conditioned  by  the  acquisition  and  use  of  knowl- 
edge, education  —  if  it  would  foster  psychical  development 
—  must  help  the  child  to  acquire  experience,  lead  him  to 
work  this  over  into  knowledge,  and  guide  him  in  the  use 
of  the  knowledge  acquired. 

§  II.  Educational  Principles 

If  these  inferences  are  brought  together  and  restated, 
we  have  the  following  principles  appHcable  to  fostering  and 
determining  the  psychical  development  of  the  child : 

I.  Education  must  seek,  in  each  period  of  child  life,  to 
give  to  the  will  that  expression,  control,  and  direction,  and 
to  the  intellect  that  form  and  content  appropriate  to  the 
development  of  the  distinctive  will  and  intellectual  char- 
acteristics of  the  period,  appropriate  to  secure  a  normal 
will  and  intellectual  development  in  the  succeeding  one, 
and  appropriate  to  secure  the  will  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment desired. 


134      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

2.  Education  must  seek  to  lead  the  child,  in  each  period 
of  life,  to  acquire  such  experience,  to  direct  him  in  working 
this  over  into  such  knowledge,  and  to  guide  him  in  making 
such  use  of  this  as  will  give  to  the  will  and  to  the  intellect 
a  development  appropriate  to  the  period,  appropriate  to 
secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual  development  in  the 
succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure  the  will  and 
intellectual  development  desired. 

Readings 

Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  184-202. 

Home,  Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  209-220. 

Bryan,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  VII,  pp.  360-394. 

Halleck,  Psychology  and  Psychic  Culture,  pp.  66-68,  80-84,  180-200. 

Sully,  Outlines  of  Psychology,  pp.  130-132,  259-276,  290-292,  299-300, 

303-314,  447-474. 
Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  122-132,  223-246,  311-313,  340-381. 
Judd,  Psychology,  pp.  285-295,  315-336. 
Dewey,  Psychology,  pp.  347-424. 

How  We  Think,  pp.  68-156. 
King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development,  pp.  110-115. 
MacCunn,  Making  of  Character,  pp.  212-222. 
O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  pp.  233-238,  246-283. 
Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  i,  pp.  170-194,  270-312. 
Henderson,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  209-235. 
Colvin,  The  Learning  Process,  pp.  211-218. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES 

§  I.  The  Problem 

From  the  relation  of  knowledge  to  the  psychical  devel- 
opment of  the  child,  it  is  necessary,  if  we  would  understand 
how  to  direct  him  in  the  acquisition  and  use  of  the  knowl- 
edge needed  to  foster  and  control  his  development,  to 
examine  the  movements  and  characteristics  of  thought 
within  each  of  the  learning  processes.  Two  of  these 
processes  are  of  special  interest  to  elementary  education  — 
the  perceptual  and  the  conceptual,  with  their  respective 
inductive  and  deductive  modes. 

§  2.  The  Inductive  Perceptual  Process  of  Learning 

In  our  foregoing  study  of  the  general  characteristics  of 
the  learning  processes,  the  inductive  perceptual  process 
of  learning  was  defined  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of 
reasoning  in  and  through  which  particular  meaning  and 
value  are  given  to  an  essentially  new  experience,  and  the 
meaning  and  value  given  symbolized  to  the  self  by  an 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  concrete  idea-whole* 

I.  The  Rise  of  Need  and  of  Motive.  —  Thought  is  for 
the  sake  of  action  and  we  act  to  give  expression  to  impulse 
or  to  satisfy  a  need.  Where  there  is  no  difficulty  in  the  way 
of  acting,  there  is  no  thought.  The  necessity  of  thought 
arises  when  there  is  such  an  obstacle,  and  the  purpose  of 


136      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  given  process  of  learning  is  to  overcome  the  difficulty 
and  to  be  able  so  to  act  as  to  satisfy  a  given  need.  Without 
a  need  to  satisfy,  and  without  an  appreciation  of  a  difficulty 
standing  in  the  way,  there  is  no  motive  for  mental  work 
and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  none  is  done  either  by  the  child  or 
by  the  adult. 

A  process  of  inductive  perceptual  learning  has  its  origin 
in  a  need,  to  satisfy  which  requires  the  acquisition  and  the 
giving  of  meaning  and  value  to  an  essentially  new  experience, 
and  the  use  of  the  essentially  new  concrete  idea  gained  in 
overcoming  the  difficulty  standing  in  the  way  of  action. 
The  rise  in  consciousness  of  a  need  which  the  child  feels 
constrained  to  satisfy,  and  the  appreciation  of  a  difficulty 
standing  in  the  way,  which  can  be  overcome  only  through 
the  acquisition  and  use  of  an  essentially  new  concrete  idea, 
characterize  the  first  step  in  a  process  of  inductive  perceptual 
learning.  For  it  is  the  desire  to  satisfy  such  a  need  and  the 
necessity  of  overcoming  such  a  difficulty  that  supply  the 
motive  and  give  point  to  the  resulting  process  of  inductive 
perceptual  thought. 

2.  The  Acquisition  of  Data.  —  With  a  difficulty  to  over- 
come in  order  to  satisfy  a  given  need,  the  child  casts  about 
for  ways  of  doing  it.  If  his  desire  can  be  gratified  through 
making  a  bow  and  arrow,  he  seeks  ways  and  means  of  making 
one.  If  his  need  can  be  satisfied  through  the  solution  of 
a  problem,  —  such  as  finding  out  how  many  cents  he  has,  — 
or  through  answering  a  question  with  reference  to  a  strange, 
little  animal,  —  a  bat,  —  or  through  acquiring  information 
with  regard  to  how  Robinson  Crusoe  built  his  house,  he 
searches  for  materials,  facts,  and  data  which  will  supply  the 
desired  solution,  answer,  or  information.  His  mind  is, 
however,  not  in  the  least  disturbed  by  how  bows  and  arrows 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  137 

in  general  are  made,  by  how  to  add  any  given  numbers,  or 
by  what  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  strange  little 
animal  are;  he  is  interested  alone  in  the  given  construc- 
tion, in  the  solution  of  the  given  problem,  or  in  the  attractive 
facts  in  connection  with  the  building  of  Robinson's  house. 
To  acquire  the  needed  data  with  reference  to  the  difficulty 
in  hand  is  a  distinct  piece  of  mental  work,  and  its  acquisition 
marks  the  second  step  in  a  process  of  inductive  perceptual 
learning. 

3.  The  Elaboration  of  Data.  —  The  acquisition  of  ma- 
terials with  respect  to  a  particular  construction,  problem, 
or  event  should  not  be  confused  with  the  giving  of  meaning 
and  value  to  the  data  collected.  To  do  this,  the  facts,  the 
sense-impressions,  or  the  data  gathered  must  be  worked 
over  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

To  illustrate,  a  child  comes  for  the  first  time  in  contact 
with  a  bat  and  is  moved  by  curiosity  to  know  what  it  is. 
He  will  observe,  in  a  general  way,  its  head,  body,  wings, 
and  certain  of  its  actions.  But  the  idea  or  picture-whole 
derived  therefrom  is  as  yet  indistinct  and  the  animal  in 
question  means  little  to  liim.  For  this  reason  he  turns 
back  and  observes  with  care  the  more  striking  features  of 
its  head,  eyes,  mouth,  body,  and  actions.  With  the  more 
definite  images  of  its  bodily  characteristics  in  mind,  there  is 
suggested  a  mouse,  and  the  suggested  sunilarity  leads  to 
comparison.  Comparison  reveals  hkenesses  and  differences 
and  tends  to  make  those  features  under  consideration  stand 
out,  and  because  of  recognized  similarity  more  or  less  of 
particular  meaning  and  value  is  transferred  to  them. 
Again,  other  bodily  characteristics  suggest  the  idea  of  a 
bird,  comparison  tends  to  impress  these  features  upon  the 
child's  mind,  and  by  reason  of  recognized  similarity  they 


138      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

take  on  concrete  meaning  and  value.  However  much 
significance  for  the  child  the  strange  little  animal  may  thus 
acquire,  there  remain  features  the  meaning  of  which  is  not 
to  be  revealed  through  comparison;  this  can  be  given  only- 
through  creative  thought  and  inductive  perceptual  judg- 
ment. These  latter  processes  become  operative  in  answer- 
ing such  questions  as:  Why  does  it  have  such  big  teeth, 
such  queer  eyes,  such  funny  shaped  wings,  such  a  queer 
body  covering?  In  some  such  way  the  child  comes  to  have 
distinct  images  of  the  more  important  and  characteristic 
aspects  of  the  bat  and  somewhat  of  an  appreciation  of  the 
significance  of  these  parts  as  separate  wholes. 

In  giving  meaning  and  value  to  the  materials  collected, 
there  is  implied  an  analysis  of  the  different  sense-impressions 
obtained  from  an  object,  or  of  the  different  elements  of  a 
problem,  or  of  the  different  factors  entering  into  making  a 
bow  and  arrow.  This  is  done  by  centering  attention  upon 
the  elements  of  experience  appealing  to  the  child  as  the 
more  important  in  the  given  connection.  There  is  also 
impHed  a  comparison  of  the  means  at  hand  and  of  the 
methods  of  construction  suggested  with  what  is  needed, 
or  a  comparison  of  the  given  sense-quaHties  with  those 
previously  observed,  or  of  the  acquired  facts  with  the  same 
or  similar  ones  previously  comprehended.  This  comparison 
of  the  new  with  the  old  is  not  for  the  sake  of  finding  elements 
of  general  meaning  and  value,  but  rather,  in  so  far  as  this 
can  be  done  upon  the  basis  of  recognized  similarity  to  past 
experience,  to  make  the  separate  means,  qualities,  or  facts 
and  their  particular  significance  stand  out  clearly  and 
distinctly.  In  an  essentially  new  experience  there  are  es- 
sentially new  elements,  —  elements  in  a  construction,  sense- 
qualities  of  an  object,  facts  of  an  event  or  story,  —  the 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  139 

meaning  and  value  of  which  must  be  determined  from  the 
ground  up  and  for  the  first  time.  The  doing  of  this  implies 
creative  thought  and  inductive  perceptual  judgment. 

It  is  this  making  clear,  through  analysis,  comparison, 
creative  thought,  and  perceptual  judgment,  the  separate 
parts  of  a  construction,  the  ways  of  constructing  each  part, 
and  the  reasons;  or  the  making  clear  the  particular  sense- 
qualities  of  an  object  and  their  particular  meaning  and 
value;  or  the  making  clear  the  different  elements  of  a  prob- 
lem and  their  imphcations,  or  the  separate  facts  of  a  story 
and  their  particular  significance,  that  is  distinctive  of  the 
mental  work  of  the  third  step  of  inductive  perceptual 
learning. 

4.  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  Though  the  child  becomes 
aware,  through  the  above  processes,  of  what  is  involved 
and  how  to  construct  this  or  that  part  of  a  given  thing, 
though  he  gains  a  definite  image  and  appreciation  of  this 
or  that  quality  of  an  object,  or  comes  to  appreciate  the 
particular  significance  of  this  or  that  fact  in  an  event  or 
story,  complete  concrete  insight  requires  that  the  knowledge 
of  separate  means  and  ways  of  construction  be  brought 
together  into  one  idea,  that  the  different  qualities  of  the 
object  be  associated  as  a  whole,  that  the  separate  facts  in 
the  desired  information  be  synthesized,  and  that  certain 
inferences,  varying  with  the  need,  be  made  in  the  light  of 
the  essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  picture-whole  acquired. 
This  associating,  this  fusing,  this  synthesizing  of  the 
elements,  separated  and  given  significance  in  the  preceding 
steps,  into  an  essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  concrete 
idea-whole,  and  the  drawing  of  inferences  on  the  basis 
thereof,  of  what  a  given  object  is,  of  how  to  construct  a 
given  thing,  of  how  to  solve  a  given  problem,  or  of  how  to 


140      TRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

overcome  a  given  difficulty,  mark  the  thought  movement 
in  the  fourth  step  of  this  mode  of  learning. 

5.  Application  or  Use.  —  The  essentially  new  concrete 
idea  or  picture-whole  thus  acquired  supplies  the  basis  for 
overcoming  the  difficulty  standing  in  the  way  of  satisfying 
the  need  calling  forth  the  given  process  of  inductive  percep- 
tual learning.  The  inciting  need  is  sometimes  gratified 
with  the  attainment  of  the  answer  to  a  given  question  or 
with  the  acquisition  of  desired  information.  There  is, 
however,  more  often  involved  the  use  of  the  essentially 
new  concrete  knowledge  obtained,  in  directing  impulse  in 
its  expression,  —  that  is,  in  directing  action  in  overcoming 
an  opposing  difficulty,  or  in  doing  or  making  a  desired  thing, 
or  in  meeting  a  given  situation,  —  and  it  is  the  use  of  the 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole  gained  to  this 
end  that  characterizes  the  final  step  in  inductive  perceptual 
learning. 

§  3.  The  Inductive  Conceptual  Process  of  Learning 

The  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  was  defined 
above  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of  reasoning  in  and 
through  which  general  meaning  and  value  are  given  to  an 
essentially  new  experience  or  group  of  experiences,  and  the 
meaning  and  value  given  s}Tnbolized  to  the  self  by  an 
individual  or  esseniially  nerd)  class  concept. 

I .  The  Rise  of  Need  and  of  Motive.  —  The  occasion  for 
carrying  on  a  process  of  inductive  conceptual  learning  arises 
when,  in  his  effort  to  satisfy  a  given  need,  the  child  comes 
face  to  face  with  a  situation  which,  to  be  readil}^  met,  in- 
volves the  acquisition  and  use  of  an  essentially  new  general 
idea;  for  example,  Vvrhen  the  child  to  direct  his  actions  in 
giving  expression  to  an  impulse  must  know  the  character- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  141 

istics  of  all  bats,  or  the  principle  controlling  the  right  lever, 
or  how  to  find  any  per  cent  of  a  given  number,  or  what 
makes  Niagara  Falls  famous.  The  presence  of  such  a  need 
and  the  appreciation  of  such  a  situation  supply  the  motive 
for  carrying  through  the  implied  process  of  learning,  and 
give  worth  to  the  individual  or  essentially  new  class  concept 
acquired.  It  is  the  rise  in  consciousness  of  such  a  need, 
the  appreciation  of  such  a  situation,  and  the  rise  of  the 
motive  to  overcome  it  that  mark  the  first  step  in  inductive 
conceptual  learning.  \J 

2 .  The  A  cquisition  olData.  —  With  the  purpose  for  carry- 
ing on  a  given  process  of  inductive  conceptual  thought  in 
mind,  the  child  begins  to  search  for  data  —  for  materials 
which  will  aid  in  attaining  the  desired  end.  It  is,  however, 
not  a  search  for  the  sense-qualities  of  a  particular  object, 
the  elements  of  a  particular  problem,  the  facts  of  a  given 
event  or  story.  It  is  rather  a  search  for  the  sense-quaUties 
of  similar  objects,  —  such  as  of  apples,  —  a  search  for  the 
elements  of  similar  problems,  —  say,  in  percentage, — or  a 
search  for  the  distinctive  facts  or  features  in  a  given  whole, 
—  like  Niagara  Falls,  Lowell's  "Longing,"  the  Plymouth 
Colony,  or  the  Missouri  Compromise.  The  collection  of  such 
data,  of  such  materials  with  reference  to  the  mental  work  in 
hand,  is  a  distinct  movement  of  thought  and  it  is  this  that 
is  distinctive  of  the  second  step  of  this  mode  of  learning. 

3.  The  Elaboration  of  Data.  —  Here  again  the  materials 
collected  should  not  be  confused  with  the  information 
sought.  For  the  attainment  of  the  individual  or  essentially 
new  class  concept  needed  calls  for  a  thorough  working  over 
of  the  data  gathered  with  reference  to  the  common  and 
essential,  or  with  respect  to  the  distinctive  elements  of 
general  meaning  and  value  embodied  in  them. 


142      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

There  is  included  in  doing  this  a  more  careful  analysis 
of  materials  than  that  imphcd  in  their  collection.  This 
analysis  does  not  consist,  —  if  the  end  to  be  attained  is  a 
class  concept,  —  in  the  separation  of  the  data  gathered  with 
respect  to  a  single  construction,  object,  or  story,  as  in  the 
corresponding  perceptual  process,  but  in  the  separation 
of  the  materials  collected  with  reference  to  each  of  several 
similar  objects,  constructions,  problems,  phenomena,  or 
processes  in  question  into  their  quahties,  elements,  factors, 
or  parts;  and  even  when  the  end  sought  is  an  individual 
concept,  the  analysis  implied  is  far  more  thorough-going 
than  that  involved  in  inductive  perceptual  thought. 

Fixing  upon  the  elements  of  general  meaning  and  value 
also  implies  comparison.  Not,  however,  a  comparison  — 
as  is  the  case  in  perceptual  induction,  —  of  one  quality  or 
element  with  a  similar  one  previously  experienced,  for  the 
purpose  of  adding  particular  meaning  and  value  to  it,  but  a 
comparison  —  if  a  class  concept  is  sought  —  of  the  qualities 
or  elements  discovered  in  several  similar  objects,  con- 
structions, phenomena,  or  processes  with  regard  to  their 
common  and  essential  character;  or,  if  an  individual  concept 
is  desired,  it  is  a  comparison  of  the  elements  found  in  a 
concrete  whole  with  respect  to  their  distinctiveness  and 
relative  importance.  For  example,  it  is  a  comparison  of 
the  qualities  and  features  of  one  bat  with  those  of  several 
others,  of  the  elements  in  one  problem  and  its  solution  with 
those  in  different  similar  problems  and  their  solution,  of  the 
factors  in  the  process  of  making  bricks  at  one  point  with  the 
factors  in  the  process  of  making  them  at  other  places,  or  it 
is  a  comparison  of  the  characteristics  of  a  concrete  whole — 
such  as  Niagara  Falls,  the  Plymouth  Colony,  "The  Great 
Stone  Face"  —  with  those  included  in  similar  particulars, 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  143 

but  more  especially  a  comparison  of  the  features  of  the  one 
in  question  with  respect  to  their  distinctive  character  an.fl 
significance. 

In  addition  to  analysis  and  comparison,  there  is  involved 
abstraction,  that  is,  a  coming,  through  processes  of  creative 
thought  and  inductive  conceptual  judgment,  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  certain  elements  in  a  group  of  objects,  construc- 
tions, or  problems  as  common  and  essential,  or  the  coming 
to  an  appreciation  of  the  distinctive  character  of  certain 
elements  in  a  given  particular. 

This  gaining  of  insight  into  separate  elements  of  a  class 
as  common  and  essential,  or  into  particular  aspects  of  a 
given  whole  as  distinctive,  constitutes  the  mental  work 
in  the  third  step  of  inductive  conceptual  learning. 

4.  Synthesis  and  Inference.  — That  the  general  idea  may 
be  acquired,  the  attainment  of  which  supplies  the  guiding 
purpose  of  the  process,  there  remains  to  bring  together  —  to 
fuse  into  a  mental  whole  —  the  ideas  of  the  separate  ele- 
ments found  common  and  essential  in  the  materials  under 
consideration,  and  upon  the  basis  of  this  idea-whole  to  draw 
an  inference  or  generahzation  with  respect  to  all  similar 
data,  for  it  is  through  this  inference  or  generalization  that 
the  essentially  new  class  notion  is  attained.  For  example, 
the  inference  or  generalization  is  the  boy's  definition  of  a 
bat,  his  idea  of  the  principle  of  the  right  lever,  his  rule  for 
the  first  problems  in  percentage.  Or  there  remains  to  bring 
together  the  separate  elements  found  distinctive  of  the 
given  particular,  as  it  is  through  fusing  the  ideas  of  the  ele- 
ments recognized  as  distinctive  that  the  individual  concept 
is  attained,  or  that  the  child  comes  to  an  appreciation  of 
why  Niagara  is  famous,  of  the  distinctive  features  in  the 
thought  and  form  of  ''Longing,"  or  of  the  important  facts 


144      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

and  the  significance  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  It  is 
this  synthesis  of  ideas  of  the  common  and  essential  elements 
in  a  mass  of  data  and  the  generalization  on  the  basis  thereof, 
or  this  synthesis  of  the  ideas  of  the  different  distinctive  and 
significant  elements  of  a  given  particular  and  the  implied 
if  not  explicit  inference,  which  mark  the  movement  of 
thought  at  this  point  in  conceptual  induction. 

5.  Application  or  Use.  —  The  thought  process  is  not 
complete,  however,  with  the  attainment  of  the  individual 
or  essentially  new  class  concept.  The  new  principle,  rule, 
or  ideal  was  acquired  that  it  might  be  used  in  directing 
action  in  the  satisfaction  of  a  given  need,  and  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  process  is  to  be  found  in  thus  emplojdng  it.  The 
initiating  need  is  gratified  at  times  with  the  attainment  of 
the  essentially  new  concept.  Yet  there  is  more  often 
implied  its  application  to  meeting  the  situation,  to  solving 
the  problem,  or  answering  the  question,  standing  in  the 
way  of  satisfpng  the  initiating  need,  and  the  use  of  the 
essentially  new  general  idea  acquired  to  this  end  constitutes 
the  final  movement  of  thought  in  inductive  conceptual 
learning. 

§  4.  The  Deductive  Perceptual  Process  of  Learning 

The  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning  was  defined, 
in  our  foregoing  study,  as  that  process  of  thought  or  of 
reasoning  through  which  meaning  and  value  are  given  to 
a  new  experience,  and  the  meaning  and  value  given  sym- 
bolized to  the  self  by  a  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole. 

I .  The  Rise  of  Need  and  of  Motive.  —  Deductive  thought, 
like  inductive,  is  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  directing 
action  in  the  satisfaction  of  needs.  The  condition,  however, 
giving  rise  to  a  process  of  deductive  perceptual  learning  is 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  145 

different  from  that  inciting  a  corresponding  process  of 
inductive  learning,  as  it  springs  from  a  need  which  may  be 
satisfied  through  meeting  a  situation,  solving  a  problem, 
or  answering  a  question  in  the  light  of  previously  acquired 
information,  or  through  the  acquisition  and  use  of  a  new 
concrete  idea.  The  presence  in  consciousness  of  such  a 
need  and  the  appreciation  of  such  an  opposing  difficulty 
yield  the  motive  for  carrjdng  on  the  process  of  perceptual 
deduction  implied  in  overcoming  the  given  obstacle  and 
in  satisfying  the  inciting  need.  The  rise  in  consciousness 
of  a  need  that  may  be  thus  satisfied,  the  appreciation  of 
such  a  difficulty,  and  the  rise  of  a  motive  to  overcome  it 
characterize  the  first  step  in  a  process  of  deductive  per- 
ceptual learning. 

2.  The  Acquisition  of  Data.  —  The  mere  appreciation 
that  a  given  situation  must  be  met,  a  given  object 
determined,  or  a  given  problem  solved,  if  a  particular  need 
is  to  be  satisfied,  implies  some  httle  knowledge  of  the  oppos- 
ing obstacle.  The  meeting  of  the  situation,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  object,  or  the  solution  of  the  problem  in  question 
involves,  however,  a  more  thorough  knowledge  than  that 
presupposed  in  the  mere  formulation  of  the  difficulty.  To 
acquire  the  needed  concrete  insight  necessitates  the 
gathering  of  data  or  materials  with  respect  to  the  given 
situation,  object,  or  problem.  To  gather  these  data  is 
mental  work  and  it  is  the  doing  of  it  that  marks  the  second 
step  of  deductive  perceptual  learning. 

To  illustrate,  a  boy  finds  that  birds  are  taking  the  seeds 
from  his  garden  and  there  comes  the  desire  to  prevent  this. 
The  difficulty  to  be  met  and  the  motive  to  overcome  it 
arise  in  the  child's  mind  at  the  same  time.  The  mere 
formulation  of  the  desired  end  does  not,  however,  carry  with 


146      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

it  a  knowledge  of  how  to  attain  the  given  purpose.  This 
impHes,  at  least,  the  gathering  of  certain  facts  with  reference 
to  the  situation  to  be  met  and  the  collection  of  data  with 
respect  to  the  means  to  be  employed.  Or,  a  ten-year-old 
wishes  to  grow  pop-corn  and  in  his  endeavor  to  satisfy  his 
desire  is  confronted  with  the  question :  Is  this  a  good  place 
to  plant  it?  Whatever  the  boy  does  or  does  not  know  about 
raising  pop-corn,  the  answer  to  the  question  confronting 
him  necessitates  a  study  of  the  given  place.  In  doing  this 
he  observes  that  the  place  is  on  the  top  of  a  high,  steep  hill 
facing  south,  and  that  the  soil  is  a  dry,  hard  clay,  full  of 
pebbles.  Or,  a  child  hungry  from  play  comes  upon  a  plate 
of  light-colored  grape-like  things,  —  Malaga  grapes.  He 
has  often  eaten  Concord  grapes,  but  never  before  has  he 
seen  things  just  like  these.  The  question  arises :  What  are 
these?  Are  they  good  to  eat?  If  the  child  is  to  learn  of 
himself,  he  must  observe,  touch,  smell,  and  taste  the  things 
in  question. 

3.  The  Recall  of  Old  Ideas.  —  The  sense-experiences  or 
the  facts  obtained  do  not  yield  of  themselves  the  desired 
new  concrete  ideas  or  insights,  they  are  but  one  of  the 
factors  involved  in  this.  Since  the  situation  or  problem 
is  such  that  it  can  be  met  or  solved  most  readily  in  the  light 
of  previously  acquired  concrete  information,  or  through  the 
acquisition  and  use  of  a  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole, 
there  is  involved  the  bringing  to  mind  of  the  particular 
concrete  ideas  gained  in  meeting  a  similar  situation  or  in 
determining  a  similar  object.  The  boy,  for  example,  con- 
fronted with  keeping  the  birds  from  his  seeds,  thinks  of  how 
he  has  seen  others  keep  them  from  things  and  remembers 
that  his  friend  kept  them  away  from  his  cherries  by  putting 
a  scarecrow  in  the  tree.    The  boy  with  the  pop-corn  enter- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  147 

prise,  in  trj^ng  to  ansv/er  his  question,  calls  to  mind  the 
character  of  the  place  where  his  uncle  plants  his.  The 
boy  with  the  Malaga  grapes  recalls,  because  of  recognized 
similarity,  his  ideas  of  Concord  grapes.  The  bringing  to 
mind  of  such  concrete  ideas  is  distinctive  of  a  process  of 
deductive  perceptual  learning  in  the  third  step. 

4.  The  Elaboration  of  Data.  —  The  concrete  ideas  pre- 
viously acquired  and  now  recalled  serve  as  the  basis  for 
giving  meaning  and  value  with  ease  and  economy  to  the 
sense-impressions  or  materials  in  question,  or  of  attaining 
the  new  concrete  idea  or  insight  sought,  yet  in  attaining  the 
desired  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole,  there  is  implied 
both  an  analysis  of  the  data  collected  and  of  the  concrete 
idea  or  ideas  brought  to  mind;  there  is  involved  also  a 
comparison  and  the  coming  to  a  recognition,  through  crea- 
tive thought  and  deductive  perceptual  judgment,  of  the 
casual  likenesses  and  differences  between  parts  of  the  situ- 
ation or  sense-qualities  of  the  object  in  question  and  the 
memory  idea  of  one  previously  met  or  determined,  and  the 
withholding  or  the  transfer  of  concrete  meaning  and  value 
to  particular  elements  of  the  given  data  in  view  of  recog- 
nized similarities  or  differences.  The  boy  with  the  garden 
analyzes,  for  example,  the  data  collected  with  reference  to 
the  situation  facing  him,  also  his  remembrance  of  the  one 
confronting  his  friend  in  keeping  the  birds  from  his  cherries; 
he  compares  the  two  and  through  creative  thought  and 
deductive  perceptual  judgment  recognizes  certain  similar- 
ities; in  view  of  the  similarities  recognized,  certain  elements 
of  the  given  situation  take  on  significance  and  he  comes  to 
appreciate  how  to  meet  different  parts  of  it.  The  one 
wishing  to  raise  pop-corn  analyzes  his  impressions  of  the 
place  before  him  and  his  knowledge  of  where  his  uncle 


148      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

plants  pop-corn;  he  compares  the  conditions  found  in  the 
two,  comes  to  a  consciousness  of  certain  differences,  and 
withholds  from  the  conditions  in  question  the  meaning  and 
value  ascribed  to  the  conditions  found  where  his  uncle 
raises  pop-corn.  The  boy  with  the  Malaga  grapes  analyzes 
the  sense-impressions  gained  from  them,  also  his  ideas 
of  the  qualities  of  Concord  grapes;  a  few  differences  in  size, 
color,  taste  and  fibre  are  noted,  but  many  similarities  are 
observed,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  similarities  recognized, 
the  concrete  meaning  and  value  belonging  to  Concord 
grapes  are  transferred  to  the  things  in  question.  Analysis, 
comparison,  the  passing  of  deductive  conceptual  judg- 
ments, and  the  transfer  or  withholding  of  concrete  meaning 
and  value  in  view  of  recognized  similarity  or  difference  is, 
then,  the  work  of  this  step  of  deductive  perceptual  learning. 
5.  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  With  insight  into  the 
several  parts  of  the  situation  facing  him,  and  into  ways  of 
meeting  these,  or  in  possession  of  distinct  impressions  of 
the  several  quahties  of  an  object  and  their  respective  con- 
crete meaning  and  value,  or  their  lack  of  it,  the  child 
proceeds  to  fuse  these  into  a  new  concrete  idea  and  upon 
the  basis  of  this  draws  conclusions.  The  boy  with  the 
garden  fuses  his  several  insights  into  how  to  meet  the 
situation  facing  him,  and  decides  he  can  keep  the  birds 
from  his  seeds  by  erecting  a  scarecrow.  The  one  launching 
the  pop-corn  enterprise  draws  together  his  impressions  of 
the  place  under  consideration,  and  infers  that  it  is  not 
adapted  to  the  raising  of  pop-corn.  The  boy  with  the 
Malaga  grapes  fuses  his  several  impressions  of  the  dif- 
ferent qualities  noted  with  the  meaning  and  value  he  at- 
taches to  them  into  a  new  concrete  idea,  and  concludes 
the  things  in  question  are  a  kind  of  grape  and  good  to  eat. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  149 

It  is  this  associating  or  synthesis  of  the  different  impres- 
tfions  and  insights  gained  in  view  of  recognized  likenesses 
or  differences  into  a  concrete  idea-whole,  and  the  drawing 
of  inferences  on  the  basis  of  the  new  concrete  idea  thus 
acquired,  that  mark  the  deductive  perceptual  process  of 
learning  in  its  fifth  step. 

6.  Application  or  Use.  —  Since  a  process  of  deductive 
perceptual  learning  is  carried  on  in  view  of  a  definite  end, 
the  final  step  in  it  is  the  satisfaction  of  the  initiating  need. 
The  initiating  need  may  be  gratified  through  the  mere 
acquisition  of  given  concrete  insight.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  thought  process,  arising  as  it  does  from  the  necessity 
of  action,  finds  its  culmination  in  action,  and  it  is  the 
direction  of  action  on  the  basis  of  the  concrete  idea-whole 
acquired  in  the  preceding  step  that  constitutes  the  final 
thought  movement  in  this  process  of  learning.  The  boy 
with  the  garden,  for  example,  in  view  of  the  concrete 
insight  gained,  erects  a  scarecrow;  the  one  interested  in 
pop-corn  seeks  another  place;  the  one  with  the  Malaga 
grapes  eats  to  his  satisfaction. 

§  5.  The  Deductive  Conceptual  Process  of  Learning 

The  deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  was  defined 
as  that  process  of  thought  or  of  reasoning  in  and  through 
which  general  meaning  and  value  arc  given  to  a  new  experi- 
ence or  a  group  of  n-ew  experiences,  and  the  meaning  and 
value  given  symbolized  to  the  self  by  a  particular  or  n^w 
class  concept. 

I.  The  Rise  of  Need  and  of  Motive.  —  The  situation  call- 
ing forth  a  process  of  deductive  conceptual  learning  is 
similar  to  that  giving  rise  to  the  corresponding  process  of 
inductive  learning.    There  is,  however,  this  difference:  the 


I50      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

necessity  of  carrying  on  a  process  of  deductive  conceptual 
thought  arises  from  the  presence  of  a  difficulty  in  the  way 
of  action  or  of  satisfying  a  need,  which  can  be  overcome 
most  economically  and  effectually  through  the  use  of  a 
general  idea  or  general  ideas  previously  acquired.  The 
presence  of  a  need  that  can  be  thus  satisfied  and  the  appre- 
ciation of  such  an  opposing  difficulty  yield  the  motive  for 
thought,  and  it  is  the  rise  in  consciousness  of  such  a  need, 
the  appreciation  of  such  a  difficulty,  and  the  rise  of  the 
motive  to  resolve  the  difficulty  and  satisfy  the  inciting  need 
that  is  distinctive  of  the  first  step  of  deductive  conceptual 
learning. 

2.  The  Acquisition  of  Data.  —  The  presence  of  a  motive 
for  doing  the  mental  work  involved  in  a  process  of  deductive 
conceptual  learning  does  not  of  itself  supply  the  insight 
needed  to  solve  the  problem  or  to  answer  the  question  at 
issue.  There  is  involved  in  the  attainment  of  this  the 
getting  of  additional  materials  of  knowledge.  The  materials 
required  will  vary  according  as  the  resolution  of  the  dififi- 
culty  implies  the  acquisition  and  use  of  a  particular  or  new 
class  concept.  The  acquisition  of  these  needed  data  marks 
the  second  step  of  deductive  conceptual  learning. 

In  case  the  difficulty  can  be  overcome  through  the 
acquisition  and  use  of  a  particular  concept,  there  is  need 
of  gathering  data  with  reference  to  the  particular  difficulty 
or  situation  in  question  only.  Take,  for  example,  the  boy 
interested  in  growing  pop-corn.  If  his  thought  is  elevated 
to  the  conceptual  plane,  he  needs  to  gather  facts  with 
reference  to  the  given  place  only.  The  data  gathered  by 
the  boy  on  this  level  of  thinking  will  be  similar  to  those 
collected  in  deductive  perceptual  learning,  and  similar  to 
those  collected  in  inductive  conceptual  learning  when  an 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  151 

individual  concept  is  sought;  still,  the  data  are  gathered 
with  more  intelligence  and  attention  is  centered  more 
especially  upon  elements  which  he  has  previously  learned 
are  of  importance.  Or,  take  the  settler  interested  in  east- 
ern North  Dakota;  he  needs  to  acquire  information  about 
this  section  only. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  difficulty  can  be  resolved 
most  economically  or  the  question  answered  most  readily 
through  the  acquisition  and  use  of  a  new  class  concept, 
there  is  need  of  acquiring  data  with  reference  to  a  number 
of  particulars.  The  boy  knowing  the  noun  and  its  uses 
and  wishing  to  know  what  a  substantive  clause  is  and  what 
its  function,  must  study  with  care  the  elements  in  a  number 
of  topical  substantive  clauses;  likewise  the  boy  who  has 
previously  mastered  the  first  case  of  percentage  and  is 
desirous  of  knowing  how  to  find  profit  and  loss,  must  study 
a  number  of  typical  problems  in  profit  and  loss.  Though 
the  data  thus  collected  are  similar  to  those  gathered  in 
inductive  conceptual  learning  when  an  essentially  new 
class  concept  is  sought,  there  is  this  difference:  the  facts 
collected  with  reference  to  the  given  particulars  are  those 
that  the  child  recognizes  as  having  been  of  importance  in 
connection  with  particulars  previously  studied,  and  which 
already  have  for  him  certain  general  significance. 

3 .  The  Recall  of  Old  Ideas. —  The  materia  Is  thus  gathered 
do  not  of  themselves  yield  the  desired  knowledge;  further 
significance  must  be  given  them.  Since  the  particular 
facts  can  be  given  this  additional  meaning  and  value  most 
economically  in  the  light  of  concepts  pre\iously  acquired, 
there  is  involved  the  recall  —  in  view  of  suggested  similar- 
ity —  of  such  general  ideas  as  may  be  of  service.  Take, 
for  example,  the  boy  desirous  of  growing  pop-corn.     If  his 


152      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

thought  is  elevated  to  the  conceptual  level,  after  he  learns 
that  the  place  under  consideration  is  dry  and  the  soil  poor, 
to  understand  the  significance  of  these  facts  he  no  longer 
tries  to  remember  the  characteristics  of  the  place  where 
his  uncle  plants  pop-corn,  but  he  seeks  to  bring  to  mind 
the  general  climatic  and  soil  conditions  essential  to  the 
growth  of  com.  Nor  does  the  boy  wishing  to  know  how 
to  find  profit  and  loss  seek  to  remember  how  he  solved 
a  particular  problem  in  the  first  case  of  percentage,  but 
endeavors  to  bring  to  mind  the  essential  elements  in  such 
problems  and  the  essential  steps  in  the  process  involved 
in  their  solution.  This  recall  of  class  concepts  previously 
acquired  and  now  helpful  in  making  clear  the  meaning  and 
value  of  the  data  in  question  distinguishes  the  third  step 
of  deductive  conceptual  learning. 

'  4.  The  Elaboration  of  Data.  —  Still,  the  concepts  brought 
to  mind  merely  serve  as  the  basis  of  giving  significance  to 
the  data  gathered.  The  attainment  of  the  desired  par- 
ticular or  new  class  concept  involves  an  analysis,  on  the 
one  hand,  of  the  facts  collected,  and,  on  the  other,  of  the 
general  idea  or  ideas  recalled.  There  is  involved  also  a 
comparison  of  the  elements  found  in  the  former  with  those 
included  within  the  latter  with  respect  to  essential  simi- 
larity and  difference.  There  is  implied  further  the  coming 
to  a  consciousness,  through  creative  thought  and  deductive 
conceptual  judgment,  of  the  essential  similarities  or  differ- 
ences between  the  elements  in  the  given  data  and  the  ele- 
ments of  the  given  general  idea  or  ideas,  and  the  transfer 
in  view  of  recognized  essential  similarities,  or  the  non- 
transfer  in  view  of  recognized  essential  differences,  of 
general  meaning  and  value  to  particular  elements  of  the 
data  in  question. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  153 

To  illustrate,  the  boy  who  wishes  to  grow  pop-corn 
needs  to  acquire  a  particular  concept,  and  after  learning 
the  facts  with  reference  to  the  place  in  question  and  having 
recalled  the  general  conditions  essential  to  the  production 
of  corn,  analyzes  into  their  constituent  factors  the  given 
data  and  the  conception  brought  to  mind;  through  pro- 
cesses of  comparison,  creative  thought,  and  deductive 
conceptual  judgment  he  comes  to  see  that  the  respective 
conditions  are  essentially  different  from  those  conducive 
to  the  growth  of  corn,  and  for  this  reason  withholds  the 
general  meaning  and  value  belonging  to  conditions  that 
are  favorable.  Or,  the  boy  who  wants  to  know  how  to 
solve  simple  problems  in  profit  and  loss  and  is  therefore 
in  need  of  a  new  class  concept,  analyzes  the  examples  in 
question  into  their  factors,  also  the  rule  covering  the  first 
case  of  percentage;  through  comparison,  creative  thought, 
and  judgment  he  notes  that  the  common  elements  in  the 
examples  under  consideration  are  essentially  similar  to 
those  imposed  by  the  rule,  and  seeing  this  transfers  to  the 
elements  in  question  the  general  meaning  and  value  that 
he  has  previously  learned  belong  to  such  elements.  This 
analysis  of  the  data  and  of  the  concept  or  concepts  brought 
to  mind,  this  comparison  of  the  elements  included  in  each, 
the  coming  to  the  appreciation  of  essential  likenesses  or 
differences,  and  the  consequent  withholding  or  transfer  of 
general  meaning  and  value  constitute  the  fourth  step  in 
this  process  of  learning. 

5.  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  In  possession  of  ideas  of 
the  constituent  elements  in  the  data  in  question,  and  in 
possession  of  insight  into  the  general  meaning  and  value 
belonging  or  failing  to  belong  to  the  several  elements,  the 
child  fuses  these  ideas  and  insights  into  a  particular  or  new 


154      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

class  concept  and  on  the  basis  thereof  draws  inferences  or 
generalizes  with  reference  to  how  to  answer  a  given  ques- 
tion, to  meet  a  given  situation,  or  to  solve  a  given  class 
of  problems.  The  prospective  settler  with  clear  ideas  of 
the  soil,  the  moisture,  and  the  temperature  of  eastern 
North  Dakota,  and  conscious  of  the  general  meaning  and 
value  adhering  to  such  physical  conditions,  brings  his  several 
impressions  and  insights  into  a  particular  concept,  that  is, 
sees  in  eastern  North  Dakota  a  particular  expression  of  the 
general  conditions  of  agriculture,  and  in  the  light  of  the 
particular  concept  acquired  infers  that  this  section  is 
suited  to  general  farming.  The  boy  with  mathematical 
interest  fuses  his  ideas  of  the  essential  elements  in  the  given 
problems  and  his  general  insight  into  how  to  handle  such 
mathematical  elements  into  a  new  class  concept,  and  on 
the  basis  of  this  formulates  a  rule  covering  all  problems 
in  simple  profit  and  loss.  This  synthesis  of  insights  into 
the  general  meaning  and  value  of  different  elements  of 
experience,  or  into  their  lack  of  it,  the  creation  thereby 
of  particular  or  new  class  concepts,  and  the  drawing  of 
inferences  or  generalizing  on  the  basis  of  these  mark  the 
intellectual  work  of  deductive  conceptual  learning  in  the 
fifth  step. 

6.  Application  or  Use. —  As  with  other  modes  of  learn- 
ing, the  need  giving  rise  to  a  process  of  deductive  conceptual 
learning  may  be  satisfied  with  the  acquisition  of  the  result- 
ing insight.  The  process  culminates  as  a  rule,  however,  in 
the  application  of  the  concept  gained  in  overcoming  the 
difficulty  which  stands  in  the  way  of  so  acting  as  to  gratify 
the  inciting  need ;  and  it  is  the  use'  of  the  knowledge  acquired 
in  directing  action  to  this  end  that  characterizes  the  final 
thought  movement  in  deductive  conceptual  learning. 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  155 

§  6.  The  Learning  Processes  ABRrocED  and  Unabridged 

Such  are  the  movements  and  characteristics  of  thought 
within  each  of  the  learning  processes  in  which  elementary 
education  is  particularly  interested.  It  is  not  claimed, 
however,  that  in  the  exercise  of  a  given  learning  process 
the  thought  movement  passes  through  each  of  the  several 
steps.  For  the  learning  processes  are  often  abridged,  that 
is,  certain  steps  are  wholly  or  in  part  omitted, —  it  may  be 
the  step  of  the  acquisition  of  data,  or  of  recall,  or  of  elabo- 
ration, —  depending  upon  the  learner  and  upon  what  is 
being  learned.  Even  when  a  process  of  learning  is  un- 
abridged, that  is,  when  there  is  no  omission  of  steps, —  and 
this  is  seldom  the  case  when  the  child  is  left  to  himself,  — 
there  is  much  going  forward  and  backward,  as,  for  example, 
from  the  step  of  the  elaboration  of  data  to  that  of  the 
acquisition  of  data,  and  vice  versa.  Nevertheless,  it  is  held, 
when  the  learning  processes  are  unabridged  and  exercised 
in  their  most  perfect  and  effective  form,  that  the  steps 
within  each  are  as  indicated  and  the  character  of  the 
thought  as  described. 

§  7.  Range  and  Period  of  Operation 

From  the  nature  of  the  ideas  gained  in  and  through  the 
inductive  perceptual  and  conceptual  processes  of  learning, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  operations  of  the  former  are  limited 
only  by  the  essentially  new  concrete  ideas,  and  those  of  the 
latter  by  the  individual  and  essentially  new  class  concepts 
to  be  obtained.  Similarly,  the  operation  of  the  deductive 
perceptual  process  of  learning  is  limited  only  by  the  new 
concrete  ideas  and  the  operation  of  the  deductive  conceptual, 
by  the  particular  or  new  class  concepts  to  be  acquired. 


156      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Between  two  and  ten,  the  child  is  employed,  in  the  main, 
in  getting  concrete  ideas  or  picture- wholes.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  during  these  years  —  the  kindergarten  and 
primary  school  period  —  that  the  inductive  and  deductive 
perceptual  processes  of  learning  are  in  active  use.  From 
ten  on,  the  child  is  occupied  more  especially  in  acquiring 
general  ideas.  Consequently  it  is  during  this  —  the  gram- 
mar school  period  —  that  the  inductive  and  deductive 
conceptual  processes  of  learning  are  employed. 

§  8.  Educational  Principles 

In  view  of  the  nature  of  the  learning  processes  and  the 
type  of  ideas  acquired  in  and  through  them,  we  have  the 
following  principles  applicable  to  directing  the  child  in 
the  acquisition  and  use  of  knowledge: 

1.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  an  essentially  new 
experience,  in  directing  him  in  working  it  over  into  an 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  ideas,  and  in  guiding  him 
in  the  use  of  this  essentially  new  knowledge,  procedure, 
must  conform  to  the  movements  and  characteristics  of 
thought  as  manifest  in  the  inductive  perceptual  process 
of  learning. 

2.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  an  essentially  new 
experience  or  group  of  experiences,  in  directing  him  in 
working  it  over  into  an  individual  or  essentially  new 
class  concept,  and  in  guiding  him  in  the  use  of  this  essen- 
tially new  knowledge,  procedure  must  conform  to  the 
movements  and  characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in 
the  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning. 

3.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  a  new  experience,  in 
directing  him  in  working  it  over  into  a  new  concrete  idea 
or  ideas,  and  in  guiding  him  in  the  use  of  tliis  new  knowl- 


THE  LEARNING  PROCESSES  157 

edge,  procedure  must  conform  to  the  movements  and 
characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  deductive 
perceptual  process  of  learning. 

4.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  a  new  experience  or 
group  of  experiences,  in  directing  him  in  working  it  over 
into  a  particular  or  new  class  concept,  and  in  guiding  him 
in  the  use  of  this  new  knowledge,  procedure  must  conform 
to  the  movements  and  characteristics  of  thought  as  mani- 
fest in  the  deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning. 

Readings 

Angell,  Psychology,  pp.  1 21-132,  137-140. 
Thorndike,  Elements  of  Psychology,  pp.  19-73. 

Principles  of  Teaching,  pp.  42-50,  133-178. 

Educational  Psychology,  vol.  ii,  pp.  17-150. 
Hobhouse,  Mind  in  Evolution,  pp.  1 12-139. 
Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making,  pp.  169-218. 
McMurry,  Elements  of  General  Method,  pp.  212-296. 
Adams,  Herbartian  Psychology  Applied  to  Education,  pp.  135-195. 
Colvin,  The  Learning  Process,  pp.  281-330. 
Miller,  The  Psychology  of  Thinking,  pp.  91-129,  189-298. 
Dewey,  How  We  Think,  pp.  157-200. 


PART   II 
APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   MEANING   AND   AIM    OF   ELEMENTARY   EDUCATION 

1.  Education  is  a  Junction  of  society,  and  the  educational 
system  of  a  given  society  must  he  such  as  will  provide  for  its 
existence,  developme^it,  and  perfection. 

2.  That  systeju  of  education  which  provides  for  the  exis- 
tence, development,  and  perfection  of  a  given  society  is  at  the 
same  time  the  system  which  will  provide  for  the  higlwst  mode 
of  life,  the  highest  development  and  self-realization  of  its 
members. 

3.  The  giving  of  appropriate  expression,  control,  and 
direction  to  the  will,  or  the  development  of  the  will,  constitutes 
the  primary  work  of  education  —  the  end  to  which  every 
phase  of  it  must  be  subordinated. 

4.  The  development  of  the  intellect  is  the  secondary  work  of 
education,  and  the  intellect  must  he  so  developed  with  respect 
to  both  form  and  content  and  only  so  developed  as  to  give  to 
the  will  the  necessary  expression  and  the  desired  determinatio7t. 

5.  Education  must  seek,  in  each  period  of  child  life,  to  give 
the  will  that  expression,  control,  and  direction,  and  to  the  intel- 
lect that  form  and  content,  appropriate  to  the  development  of  the 
distinctive  will  and  intellectual  characteristics  of  the  period, 
appropriate  to  secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment in  the  succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure  the  will 
and  intellectual  development  desired. 

6.  Education  must  seek  to  lead  the  child,  in  each  period 
of  life,  to  acquire  su^h  experience,  to  direct  him  in  working 


i62     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

this  over  into  such  knowledge,  and  to  guide  him  in  making 
such  use  of  this  knowledge  as  will  give  to  the  will  and  to  the 
intellect  a  development  appropriate  to  the  period,  appropriate 
to  secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual  development  hi  the 
succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure  the  will  and  intel- 
lectual development  desired. 

§  I.  The  Problem 

We  have  been  engaged  up  to  this  time  in  making  clear 
the  basis  and  in  formulating  the  principles  conditioning 
elementary  education  as  an  art.  It  yet  remains  to  bring 
these  principles  to  bear  upon  the  solution  of  the  problems 
of  the  elementary  school.  The  practical  problems  of  ele- 
mentary education  may  be  stated  in  the  form  of  four  ques- 
tions: (i)  What  is  the  meaning  and  aim  of  elementary 
education?  (2)  What  should  be  the  character  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  curriculum?  (3)  What  should  be  the 
method  of  elementary  instruction?  (4)  How  should  the 
elementary  school  be  organized?  Answering  these  ques- 
tions, in  the  Hght  of  the  principles  developed,  constitutes 
the  second  part  of  our  study. 

§  2.  The  Meaning  of  Education 

In  so  far  as  educational  writers  have  discussed  the  mean- 
ing of  education,  it  has  been  considered,  on  the  whole, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  individual  alone.  So  satu- 
rated are  we  with  individuaHstic  ideas  of  education,  and 
so  long  has  its  meaning  been  treated  only  from  the  side 
of  the  child,  that  until  lately  it  has  been  quite  foreign  to 
think  of  the  school  as  having  anything  to  do  with  society. 
Indeed,  throughout  the  nineteenth  century  it  was  revolu- 
tionary to  suggest  that  the  primary  significance  of  educa- 


MEANS  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  163 

tion  is  in  its  relation  to  the  life  of  society  and  not  in  its 
relation  to  the  Kfe  of  the  individual. 

I.  Meaning  from  Side  of  Society.  —  The  social  meaning 
of  education  appears  when  the  work  of  the  school  is  con- 
sidered with  reference  to  the  first  of  the  above  principles. 

The  existence  of  society  is  conditioned,  as  we  have  seen, 
by  certain  psychical  capacities  on  the  part  of  its  members, 
by  a  certain  common  knowledge  of  means  and  of  ends 
possessed  and  appHed  by  them,  and  by  certain  purposes 
and  habits  common  to  their  activities.  If  the  young  of 
America  were  to  be  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  gaining 
this  mental  development,  of  obtaining  this  common  fund 
of  knowledge,  of  acquiring  these  common  modes  of  feeling, 
common  aspirations,  and  habits  of  action,  the  forms  of 
democratic  life  as  we  know  and  enjoy  them  would  dis- 
appear with  the  next  generation. 

It  was,  however,  the  Ancients  and  not  the  Modems  who 
first  appreciated  the  meaning  of  education  with  respect 
to  the  preservation  and  continuation  of  social  life.  So 
thoroughly  was  this  phase  of  its  significance  grasped  by 
Orientals,  —  ancient  Egyptians,  Persians,  Chinese, —  that 
this  constituted  for  them  its  whole  meaning.  In  conse- 
quence, there  resulted,  for  example,  in  China,  what  has 
been  characterized  "education  as  recapitulation,"  that  is, 
a  system  of  education  devoted  to  transmitting  to  the 
on-coming  generation  that  knowledge  and  to  inculcating 
those  habits  of  conduct  essential  to  the  continuance  of 
society  in  the  next  generation  as  it  exists  in  the  present. 
A  like  idea  prevailed  among  the  Spartans.  With  them 
every  aspect  of  education  was  determined  by  social  needs 
and  had  reference  to  the  continuation  of  Spartan  institu- 
tions  as    then    constituted.     Even    with    Plato    the   sole 


1 64        PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

problem  was,  given  an  ideal  society,  how  can  its  continued 
existence  be  conserved  through  the  school? 

With  the  submersion  of  Greek  and  Roman  Ufe  by  the 
tides  of  barbarianism  from  the  North,  the  social  signifi- 
cance of  education  was  lost  to  view;  with  the  over-emphasis 
of  individualism  in  earlier  modern  times,  it  was  ignored; 
and  only  with  the  establishment  of  modern  democracies 
was  it  again  appreciated.  This  appreciation  has  found 
varied  expression.  In  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  we  find 
these  oft-quoted  words,  "Religion,  morality,  and  knowl- 
edge, being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness 
of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  for- 
ever be  encouraged."  The  following  has  found  place  in 
some  form  or  other  in  the  constitution  of  every  state  of 
the  American  Union,  "Knowledge  and  learning  generally 
diffused  throughout  all  parts  of  a  state  being  essential  to 
the  preservation  of  a  free  government,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  general  assembly  to  provide  by  law  for  a  general 
and  uniform  system  of  schools,  wherein  tuition  shall  be 
without  charge,  and  equally  to  all."  Webster  enunciates 
the  same  thought,  "On  the  diffusion  of  education  among 
the  people  rest  the  preservation  and  perpetuation  of  our 
free  institutions."  Condorcet  reflected  but  the  common 
mind  of  the  French  Revolution,  when  he  said,  "A  free 
government  that  does  not  undertake  the  universal  instruc- 
tion of  its  citizens  will  come  to  destruction." 

Long  after  the  meaning  of  education  with  reference  to 
the  preservation  and  continuation  of  society  was  ap- 
preciated by  statesmen  and  embodied  in  law  by  America 
and  the  more  progressive  nations  of  Europe,  educational 
thinkers  came  to  accept  this  view.  Perhaps  no  one  has 
done  more  of  late  to  force  it  to  the  front  than  Dr.  Dewey, 


MEANS  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  165 

who  says/  "The  school  is  fundamentally  an  institution 
erected  by  society  to  do  a  certain  specific  work,  —  to 
exercise  a  certain  specific  function  in  maintaining  the 
life  and  advancing  the  welfare  of  society.  The  moral 
responsibility  of  the  school,  and  of  those  who  conduct  it, 
is  to  society." 

That  the  social  order  must  develop  and  that  it  must  be 
continuously  improved,  if  it  is  to  perform  its  function,  is 
a  relatively  new  conception.  Society,  however,  does  not 
develop  and  improve  of  itself.  This  is  conditioned,  as  we 
have  seen,  by  the  constructive  and  creative  ability  of 
certain  of  its  members.  The  members  of  society  are  not 
born  with  the  ability  to  initiate  social  changes,  to  create 
new  social  ideals.  Before  the  most  gifted  are  able  to  make 
even  the  smallest  contribution  to  social  improvement,  they 
must  receive  years  of  nurture.  Limit  the  on-coming 
generation  to  opportunities  alone  requisite  to  provide  the 
psychical  development  in  the  individual  essential  to  the 
existence  of  the  social  whole,  and  further  social  progress 
and  social  perfection  are  stopped.  Under  such  conditions, 
one  period  of  social  Hfe  is  like  another  —  the  customs, 
traditions,  and  ideals  of  one  generation  are  handed  on 
unchanged  to  the  next,  and  the  succeeding  generation  is 
powerless  to  alter  and  improve.  A  society,  therefore, 
that  would  fulfill  its  function  and  would  be  continuously 
adjusted  thereto,  must  provide  for  its  progressive  de- 
velopment and  perfection.  The  means  through  which 
this  may  be  done  is  the  school,  and  it  is  in  viewing  educa- 
tion in  relation  to  the  development  and  perfection  of  the 
social  body  that  its  further  meaning  from  the  social  side  is 
to  be  appreciated. 

1  Dewey,  Ethical  Prindpks  Underlying  Education,  p.  10. 


i66     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

The  sociologists  were  the  first  to  call  attention  to  this 
aspect  of  its  significance,  and  the  chief  of  these  was  Lester 
F.  Ward.^  So  impressed  was  he  with  the  thought  that  edu- 
cation is  the  ultimate  means  of  perfecting  social  life,  that 
he  beheved,  ''If  society  ever  becomes  fully  conscious  of  the 
end  of  its  being  and  of  the  relation  of  the  various  means 
thereto,  after  its  regulative  function,  it  will  concentrate 
its  entire  energy  upon  education."  "The  function  of 
education,  from  a  societary  point  of  view,"  says  Howerth,^ 
"is  to  modify  and  accelerate  social  evolution." 

Educationists  were  quick  to  agree  with  the  sociologists. 
"Education,"  writes  Dewey ,^  "is  the  fundamental  method 
of  social  progress  and  refomiT^  "Through  education 
society  can  formulate  its  own  purposes,  can  organize  its 
own  means  and  resources,  and  thus  shape  itself  with 
definiteness  and  economy  in  the  direction  in  which  it  wishes 
to  move."  "Every  teacher  should  realize  the  dignity  of 
his  calling;  that  he  is  a  social  servant  set  apart  for  the 
maintenance  of  proper  social  order  and  the  securing  of 
the  right  social  growth." 

The  meaning  of  education,  from  the  social  point  of 
view,  is  therefore  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
institution  through  which  society  conserves  its  existence 
and  provides  for  its  perfection,  or  secures  the  continuation 
and  progressive  adjustment  of  itself  to  its  function. 

2.  Meaning  from  Side  oj  Individual.  —  On  the  other 
hand,  the  significance  of  education  for  the  individual  is 
suggested  by  the  last  five  of  the  above  principles. 

Notwithstanding  the  individual  is  predisposed  by  hered- 

^  Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology,  vol.  ii,  pp.  631,  589,  591,  632-633. 
2  Howertli.  Fifth  Year  Book  of  National  Herbartiaii  Society,  p.  75. 
'  Dewey,  Educational  Creeds  of  XlXth  Century,  pp.  17-19. 


MEANS  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  167 

ity  to  social  life  in  general  and  to  that  of  his  own  people 
in  particular,  wholly  unassisted,  he  is  unable  of  himself 
to  attain  that  development  of  hereditary  capacity  essential 
to  life  under  social  conditions,  and  apart  from  society 
there  is  no  human  life  as  we  know  it.  The  psychical 
development  needed  to  enable  the  child  to  enter  into  and 
enjoy  modes  of  social  life  is  secured  to  him  by  education. 
Education  means,  in  consequence,  from  this  point  of  view, 
the  process  of  humanization  and  sociaKzation  whereby  the 
human  will  is.^iyen  such  expression  and  direction,  through 
the  appropriate  development  of  the  intellect  with  respect 
to  form  and  content,  that  the  individual  is  able  to  par- 
ticipate in  social  Kfe  and  prepared  to  Hve  according  to  its 
forms  and  standards,  or  is  prepared  to  live  economically 
and  spiritually  as  a  person. 

The  individual  does  not  seek,  however,  to  live  merely 
as  a  person,  but  he  also  seeks  his  own  highest  development 
and  self-realization.  The  development  and  self-realization 
that  the  individual  can  attain  depend  in  part,  as  we  have 
seen,  upon  the  materials  of  culture  that  he  can  make  his 
own.  Of  himself  he  is  able  to  create  but  a  small  part  of  the 
materials  of  culture  involved  in  his  highest  development. 
These  must  be  supplied  him  by  the  social  order  of  which 
he  is  a  member;  and  it  is  in  this  connection  that  the  fur- 
ther significance  of  education  from  the  side  of  the  individual 
is  to  be  grasped.  For  it  is  the  process  through  which  the 
cultural  resources  of  society  are  so  placed  at  his  disposal 
that,  through  making  these  his  own  and  using  them,  he 
is  able  to  give  such  form  and  content  to  his  intellect  and 
such  expression  and  direction  to  his  will  as  enables  him 
to  attain  the  highest  development  and  self-realization 
under  the  given  conditions.     In  short,  education  is  the 


1 68     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

process  through  which  the  child  is  prepared  not  only  to 
live  as  a  person,  but  prepared  also  for  the  fullest  and  richest 
personal  life. 

3.  Unity  in  Meaning.  —  The  meaning  of  education 
differs,  therefore,  according  as  it  is  regarded  from  the 
side  of  society  or  from  the  side  of  the  individual.  This 
difference  arises  from  considering  its  meaning  as  if  society 
and  the  individual  were  unrelated.  By  reason,  however, 
of  the  relation  between  society  and  the  individual,  and  by 
reason  of  the  second  of  the  foregoing  principles,  education 
has  but  one  meaning  and  may  be  defined  as  that  process 
through  which  the  development  and  the  highest  life  of 
the  individual  is  conserved  through  so  humanizing  and 
socializing  him  as  to  conserve  directly  the  existence, 
development,  and  perfection  of  society. 

§  3.  The  Aim  of  Education 

I.  Aim  from  Side  of  Society. —  The  aim  of  education, 
when  formulated  in  view  of  the  first  of  the  foregoing 
principles,  is  to  provide  for  the  existence,  development, 
and  the  perfection  of  the  society  supporting  the  given 
system  of  schools. 

When  thus  formulated,  the  aim  of  any  given  school 
system  becomes  national  and  not  international  in  its  scope; 
it  has  to  do  with  the  life  of  a  given  social  body  and  not 
with  the  world  at  large.  In  consequence,  the  aim  of  the 
school  system  of  no  two  societies  can  ever  be  the  same, 
unless  these  perchance  are  identical  in  nature,  members, 
and  needs.  The  working  aim  of  the  schools  of  China 
will  therefore  be  one  thing,  of  Germany,  another,  and  of 
the  United  States,  still  another.  Yet  this  ought  not  to 
disturb  the  teacher.    It  does  not  stagger  the  scientist  when 


THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  169 

the  actions  of  a  principle  are  not  always  the  same.  Differ- 
ences are  explained,  not  through  repudiating  the  principle, 
but  through  finding  difi'erences  in  the  materials  acted  upon, 
or  in  the  conditions  under  which  the  principles  are  applied. 
So  it  should  be  with  the  teacher.  He  ought  to  see,  even 
though  education  must  be  made  essentially  national  in  its 
purposes  and  ends,  and  even  though  these  vary  with  the 
nation,  that  the  principles  determining  the  aim  of  the  school 
are  universal. 

The  end  of  education  as  thus  stated  becomes  more 
concrete  and  real  if  an  analysis  is  made  of  the  different 
phases  of  social  life,  and  if  the  aim  of  education  is  stated 
with  reference  to  these.  The  phases  of  societary  Hfe  are 
the  industrial,  the  social,  the  intellectual,  the  artistic,  and 
the  moral-rehgious.  A  word  will  make  clear  the  meaning 
of  each. 

To  the  industrial  or  economic  phase  of  society  belong 
those  activities  having  to  do  with  the  production  and 
exchange  of  the  commodities  of  life,  and  especially  with 
those  employed  in  the  satisfaction  of  physical  and  material 
needs.  To  discuss  the  social  character  of  production  and 
exchange  is  not  our  purpose.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  around 
and  out  of  these  have  arisen  a  multitude  of  occupations, 
trades,  associations,  and  professions,  each  of  which  pre- 
supposes a  certain  kind  of  labor,  the  appHcation  of  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  scientific  or  technical  knowledge,  and 
"trade  traditions,"  and  the  presence  and  use  of  more  or 
less  skill.  There  belong  here  also  certain  habits  of  action, 
certain  ideals  and  principles  of  conduct  adhering  to  par- 
ticular trades  and  occupations,  and  a  body  of  common  and 
statute  law  applying  to  all. 

The  social  phase  includes  the  family, ' '  social ' '  intercourse, 


170    PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

and  political  life.  The  family,  as  an  institution,  rests  upon 
insight  into  the  relations  and  mutual  obligations  of  husband 
and  wife,  and  those  existing  between  parents  and  children; 
it  rests  also  upon  customs,  knowledge,  principles,  and 
ideals,  while  it  is  safeguarded  by  a  body  of  law  defining 
its  legal  status  and  fixing  the  standards  of  married  Hfe. 

By  "social"  intercourse  is  meant  "society"  as  this 
term  is  generally  used,  and  it  comprehends  all  free  and 
voluntary  intermingling  with  others,  outside  the  family 
circle,  for  the  sake  of  "social"  enjoyment.  The  forms 
taken  by  "social"  intercourse  are  legion;  there  is  mingling 
one  with  another  in  conversation,  entertainments,  "socie- 
ties," and  clubs  of  every  description.  Out  of  these  modes 
of  association  have  arisen  rules  of  etiquette,  customs, 
ceremonies,  ideals  of  politeness,  of  sociabihty,  of  good 
breeding,  of  regard  and  consideration  for  others,  and  these 
are  a  part  of  "social"  intercourse  and  constitute  its  basis. 

Political  life,  as  the  third  element  of  the  social  phase, 
comprises  all  that  has  to  do  with  the  conservation  of  the 
social  body  through  the  direct  means  of  government.  To 
it  adhere  forms  of  local,  state,  and  national  government, 
and  all  activities  on  the  part  of  officials  and  the  people 
related  to  their  administration.  There  are  to  be  included 
also  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  character  of  the  different 
units  of  government,  insight  into  the  principles  underlying 
the  life  of  the  social  whole  as  embodied  in  the  constitution 
of  the  state  and  nation,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  implica- 
tions of  these  with  reference  to  social  and  individual  life. 

The  intellectual  phase  embraces  those  labors  of  men 
directed  toward  mental  culture  and  the  acquisition  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge.  These  may  be  those  of  private 
individuals,  of  special  associations,  or  of  society  as  a  whole. 


THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  171 

The  endeavors  of  private  individuals  vary  from  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge  for  personal  ends  to  its  acquisition  and 
dissemination  for  the  use  of  others.  The  work  of  special 
associations  is  equally  varied;  there  are  literary  and  scien- 
tific associations,  from  the  country  debating  club  to  the 
Society  for  Psychical  Research,  each  having  its  special 
object  and  accomphshing  its  purpose  in  its  own  way. 
The  labors  of  society  in  this  direction  touch  almost  every 
intellectual  interest,  range  over  the  whole  field  of  learning, 
and  utilize  almost  every  known  means:  papers,  bulletins, 
schools,  expeditions,  and  surveys.  Back  of  this  intellectual 
activity  there  Hes  the  world  of  extant  knowledge,  concep- 
tions of  its  general  and  special  utility,  ideals  of  scholarship 
and  of  literary  attainment,  habits  of  thought,  and  tradi- 
tional attitudes  with  reference  to  the  acquisition,  diffusion, 
and  preservation  of  learning. 

The  artistic  phase  comprehends  all  that  relates  to  the 
production  and  enjoyment  of  the  beautiful;  and  this 
occupies  a  larger  place  than  casual  thought  reveals.  With 
this  phase  are  to  be  associated  those  activities  having  to 
do  with  the  production  of  poetr>',  music,  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  architecture;  also  those  activities  connected  with 
aesthetic  enjoyment,  the  preservation  of  art,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  a  love  of  the  beautiful  —  such  as  concerts, 
exhibitions,  excursions,  art  and  music  schools,  museums, 
and  public  parks.  As  the  basis  and  foundation  of  this 
activity  and  as  an  essential  part  of  this  phase  of  social 
life,  there  exist  a  fund  of  art  knowledge,  a  world  of  art 
treasures,  ideals  of  the  beautiful,  well-fixed  artistic  tastes, 
a  deep  sense  of  aesthetic  appreciation,  habits  of  artistic 
reaction,  and  a  well-defined  body  of  art  customs  and 
traditions. 


172     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

To  the  moral-religious  phase  belong  those  actions  of 
the  individual,  prompted  by  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong, 
and  by  a  sense  of  duty  or  obligation  to  God,  also  those 
associations  having  primarily  a  moral-religious  purpose, 
among  which  are  charity  boards  of  various  types,  fraternal 
and  aid  societies  of  divers  descriptions,  reformatory  and 
eleemosynary  institutions,  and,  finally,  the  church  with 
its  innumerable  auxiharies  and  corollaries.  All  these 
individual  and  institutional  activities  are  but  the  expres- 
sion of  a  system  of  moral  and  rehgious  ideals:  ideas  of  right 
and  wrong,  of  honor,  of  honesty,  of  courage,  of  purity,  of 
charity,  of  love,  of  manhood  and  womanhood,  of  duty  to 
one's  self,  to  others,  and  to  God;  and  these  ideas  are 
grounded  in  a  world  of  experience  and  teachings. 

Such  in  outline  are  the  phases  of  social  life,  each  embrac- 
ing a  distinct  range  of  individual  and  social  activities, 
and  based  upon  a  specific  fund  of  customs,  knowledge, 
and  ideals.  No  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between 
them,  for  they  are  reciprocally  related.  Taken  together, 
they  constitute  the  organic  life  of  society,  and  are  not  only 
vital  and  necessary  manifestations  of  it,  but  represent  the 
directions  in  which  society  must  progress.  Ignore  any  one 
of  these  phases,  and  the  hand  of  death  is  laid  upon  social 
life  in  its  unity. 

From  this  point  of  view,  the  societary  aim  of  education 
may  therefore  be  said  to  be  to  provide  for  those  modes 
of  activity  in  the  on-coming  generation,  through  the  trans- 
mission of  those  customs  and  traditions,  of  that  knowledge 
of  means  and  of  ideals  requisite  to  secure,  in  the  next,  the" 
preservation  and  progressive  development  and  perfection 
of  the  different  phases  of  the  life  of  the  nation  supporting 
the  given  schools. 


THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  173 

2.  Aim  from  Side  of  the  Individual.  —  On  the  other  hand, 
the  individualistic  aim  of  education  is  conditioned  more 
especially  by  the  second  of  the  foregoing  principles,  and 
when  formulated  with  regard  thereto,  it  is  so  to  humanize 
and  sociaKze  the  individual  that  he  may  be  prepared  to 
live,  to  develop,  and  to  attain  the  highest  self-realization 
under  given  social  conditions. 

Such  a  statement  of  the  aim  of  education  with  reference 
to  the  individual  seems  at  first  thought  to  fall  short  of  that 
given  by  Kant,  "There  is  within  every  man  a  divine  ideal, 
the  type  after  which  he  was  created,  the  germs  of  a  perfect 
person,  and  it  is  the  office  of  education  to  favor  and  direct 
these  germs  in  their  development."  Or,  as  defined  by 
Pestalozzi,  ''The  aim  of  education  consists  in  developing, 
according  to  natural  law,  the  child's  various  powers,  moral, 
intellectual,  and  physical,  with  such  subordination  as  is 
necessary  to  their  perfect  equihbrium."  Or  by  Froebel, 
"By  education,  then,  the  divine  essence  of  man  should  be 
unfolded,  brought  out,  lifted  into  consciousness,  and  man 
himself  raised  into  free,  conscious  obedience  to  the  divine 
principle  that  lives  in  him,  and  to  a  free  representation  of 
this  principle  in  his  life."  Or  by  Spencer,  "To  prepare 
us  for  complete  living  is  the  function  which  education  has 
to  discharge."  Phrases,  however,  like  the  development  of 
"the  germs  of  the  perfect  person,"  the  unfolding  of  "the 
divine  essence  of  man,"  "the  harmonious  and  perfect 
development  of  the  faculties,"  "complete  living,"  when 
used  apart  from  social  relations,  have  little  content.  The 
only  "perfect  person"  is  the  one  in  harmony  with  a  given 
social  pattern,  the  one  whose  life  is  fashioned  to  given  social 
standards;  "mental  faculties"  are  not  developed  independ- 
ent of  use  and,  consequently,  apart  from  specific  soda? 


174       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

demands,  there  Is  no  "development  and  perfection  of  facul- 
ties"; and  "complete  living"  results  alone  from  life 
perfectly  adjusted  to  given  social  situations.  The  real 
meaning  of  these  definitions  of  the  masters  therefore 
only  becomes  apparent  when  they  are  brought  into 
relations  to  a  given  social  hfe.  Consequently,  our  defini- 
tion does  not  fall  so  far  short  In  idealism;  neither  is  it 
crass  nor  materialistic,  but  as  idealistic  as  the  facts  and 
conditions  of  human  existence  will  permit. 

By  thus  recognizing  social  conditions  as  the  dominant 
factor  in  determining  the  hfe  for  which  the  child  Is  to  be 
prepared,  It  must  be  admitted  that  his  capacity  for  life 
and  development  Is  to  a  certain  extent  ignored.  But  It 
matters  not  to  education,  in  a  sense,  what  ability  the 
child  may  have;  the  only  life  for  which  it  can  prepare 
him  is  that  approved  by  the  nation  supporting  the  given 
schools.  Still,  since  the  Ufe  which  the  individual  is  able 
to  enjoy,  notwithstanding  he  may  have  capacity  for  higher 
development,  is  conditioned  by  the  society  of  which  he  Is 
a  member,  that  education  which  seeks  to  fit  him  for  life 
as  sanctioned  by  the  nation  sustaining  the  given  schools 
is  the  education  which  prepares  him  on  the  whole  for 
the  highest  development  and  self-realization  attainable  by 
him. 

The  working  aim  of  education,  from  the  side  of  the  indi- 
vidual, will  change  therefore  with  every  considerable  varia- 
tion in  national  conditions.  It  will  be  one  thing  in  the 
United  States,  another  In  England,  and  still  another  in 
Russia;  and  by  reason  of  the  differences  in  the  ends  sought, 
the  results  of  the  educative  process  will  in  no  two  nations 
be  the  same.  The  individual,  when  educated  in  accord 
with  a  given  aim,  will  be  prepared  for  Hfe  in  the  society  of 


THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION  175 

which  he  is  a  part,  but  will  not  be  equally  well  fitted  to 
become  a  member  of  another  nation. 

The  individualistic  aim  of  education  may  be  rendered 
somewhat  more  concrete,  if  stated  in  terms  of  the  last 
four  of  the  foregoing  principles  and  in  view  of  the  relation 
between  the  psychical  nature  of  the  individual  and  the 
phases  of  social  life. 

The  different  phases  of  society  are  the  resultant  of  one 
or  more  of  the  primal  impulses  as  these  have  found  expres- 
sion under  the  guidance  of  the  intellect,  the  industrial 
phase  arising  primarily  from  the  expression  and  determina- 
tion of  the  impulse  of  self-preservation,  the  social  phase 
being  the  resultant  of  the  impulse  of  race-preservation  and 
of  sociahty,  the  artistic  phase  the  outgrowth  of  the  art 
impulse.  Taken  as  a  whole,  these  phases  are  but  the 
objective  expression  in  their  developed  forms  of  the  will 
and  intellectual  life  of  individuals,  and  represent  the  highest 
actualization  of  their  psychical  nature  under  given  social 
conditions.  Society  in  its  different  phases  and  the  will 
and  intellectual  capacities  of  the  individual  are  conse- 
quently not  opposed  to  each  other.  The  phases  of  social 
life  can  be  interpreted  only  when  read  backward  into 
terms  of  the  will  and  intellectual  capacities  of  the  individual, 
and  these  can  be  interpreted  only  when  read  forward  into 
terms  of  the  different  phases  of  social  Ufe. 

From  this  vantage  ground,  the  aim  of  education  from 
the  side  of  the  individual  may  be  said  to  be  so  to  develop 
his  intellect,  through  bringing  him  to  accept  such  ideals 
of  Hfe  and  through  supplying  him  with  such  knowledge 
of  means,  that  he  is  able  to  give  that  expression,  control, 
and  direction  to  his  primal  impulse  requisite  to  enable  him 
to  participate  in  the  different  phases  of  the  Ufe  of  the 


176      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

nation  of  which  he  is  a  member,  to  enjoy  life  therein,  and 
to  attain  under  the  given  national  conditions  the  highest 
development  and  self-realization  possible  to  him. 

3.  Unity  in  Aim.  —  The  aims  of  education,  as  thus 
formulated  from  the  side  of  the  individual  and  of  society, 
appear  to  be  somewhat  contradictory.  By  reason  of  the 
reciprocal  relation  between  the  individual  and  society, 
and  by  reason  of  the  first  two  of  the  foregoing  principles, 
the  social  and  individuahstic  aims  of  education  cannot  be 
in  opposition.  For  each  implicitly  includes  the  other, 
though  in  a  given  formulation  this  may  not  be  apparent. 
The  foregoing  related  —  though  one-sided  —  statements 
may  therefore  be  thus  drawn  together:  The  aim  of  any 
school  system  is  to  provide  for  the  existence,  the  develop- 
ment, and  the  perfection  of  the  nation  supporting  the  given 
system  of  education,  through  transmitting  to  its  on-coming 
members  such  knowledge  of  means  and  ideals  and  through 
giving  such  expression  and  determination  to  the  will  that 
they  are  fitted  to  participate  in  the  life  of  the  given  nation 
and  to  contribute  to  the  continuation,  development,  and 
perfection  of  each  of  its  phases,  and  are  thereby  prepared 
for  the  highest  mode  of  life,  the  highest  development  and 
self-realization  possible  to  them  tmder  the  given  national 
conditions. 

§  4.  The  Aim  of  Elementary  Education 

If  this  aim  of  education  is  to  be  accepted  and  is  to  be 
made  the  basis  of  school  work,  it  remains,  in  view  of  our 
interests,  to  determine  in  the  light  thereof  the  aim  of  the 
elementary  school. 

The  function  of  a  given  school  in  a  system,  apart  from 
the  aim  of  the  system  as  a  whole,  is  conditioned  by  three 


AIM  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  177 

factors:  by  the  capacity  of  its  pupils,  by  the  length  of  the 
period  devoted  to  its  work,  and  by  whether  its  students 
will  receive  further  school  education. 

The  elementary  school  period  extends  with  us  from  the 
sixth  to  the  fourteenth  year  inclusive.  During  this  period 
the  child  is  immature  and  his  capacities  are  relatively 
undeveloped.  For  all  save  approximately  five  per  cent, 
the  elementary  school  is  the  only  one  attended,  as  under 
present  economic  conditions  the  school  hfe  of  all  but  the 
more  favored  few  must  culminate  with  the  attainment  of 
that  physical  strength  enabling  them  to  join  the  ranks 
of  the  wage-earners.  j 

In  view  of  these  Hmiting  conditions  and  the  object 
of  our  system  as  a  whole,  the  aim  of  the  elementary  school 
is  to  provide  primarily  for  the  continuation  in  its  common 
and  basic  features  and  secondarily  for  the  progressive 
development  of  the  social  and  national  life  of  the  American 
people.  To  fulfill  its  primary  function,  the  elementary 
school  must  so  prepare  the  on-coming  generation  as  to 
enable  it  to  enter  into  and  make  its  own  the  common  modes 
and  standards  of  Hfe  sanctioned  by  our  social  order.  To 
fulfill  its  secondary  function,  it  must  so  prepare  the  indi- 
vidual that  he  is  at  least  able  to  appreciate  and  to  adjust 
himself  to  whatever  fundamental  changes  there  may  occur 
in  our  national  life  during  his  time.  The  service  of  the 
elementary  school  in  relation  to  social  improvement  is  a 
passive  one.  For,  owing  to  the  limitations  imposed  upon 
the  elementary  school,  though  it  can  so  prepare  the  indi- 
vidual as  to  enable  him  to  appreciate  and  to  adjust  him- 
self to  social  improvement,  it  cannot  as  a  rule  equip  him 
to  become  an  active  agent  in  the  initiation  of  social  reform. 
Nevertheless,  the  service  of  the  elementary  school  in  this 


178      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

respect  is  important,  as  it  provides  for  social  plasticity 
and  the  approval  of  the  many  —  the  prime  condition  of 
social  development. 

In  the  fulfillment  of  the  function  of  the  elementary  school, 
there  is  implied  the  transmission  to  the  on-coming  genera- 
tion of  those  ideals  and  of  that  knowledge  of  means  essential 
to  the  preservation,  in  their  fundamental  features,  of  the 
industrial,  the  social,  the  intellectual,  the  artistic,  and  the 
moral-religious  phases  of  American  life  as  now  constituted, 
and  essential  to  a  full,  rich,  individual  life  as  determined 
thereby.  There  is  implied,  also,  the  bringing  of  the  on- 
coming generation  to  accept  the  ideals  and  the  knowledge 
of  means  transmitted,  and  teaching  it  how  to  use  these  in 
giving  the  will  such  expression,  control,  and  direction  that 
action  is  brought  into  conformity  to  present  social  prac- 
tices and  standards.  There  is  impHed  in  addition  the 
giving  to  the  rising  generation  that  insight  into  and  that 
skill  in  the  use  of  the  tools  of  learning  necessary  to  render 
accessible  the  realm  of  general  knowledge,  for  it  is  the 
glory  of  our  democracy  that  it  gives  every  man,  notwith- 
standing his  early  hfe  and  advantages,  an  opportunity  — 
within  the  limits  sanctioned  —  to  become  whatever  he  may 
desire,  and  a  command  of  the  tools  of  learning  is  essential 
to  open  the  way.  Finally,  there  is  impHed  the  fostering  of 
those  habits  of  mind  and  those  modes  of  thought  conducive 
to  toleration  and  open-mindedness,  the  prerequisites  of  pro- 
gressive social  adaptability.  There  is  implied,  in  short,  in 
the  fulfillment  of  the  function  of  the  elementary  school  the 
giving  of  that  education  essential  for  all  to  have  — whatever 
their  educational  destination  or  future  occupation — in  order 
to  provide  for  the  preservation  and  the  continuation  in  their 
basic  features,  of  all  the  phases  of  our  national  Hfe. 


AIM  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  179 

Statistics  show  that  those  enjo}dng  only  an  elementary 
education  occupy,  in  the  main,  the  more  humble  positions 
in  our  social  order  and  pursue  the  more  ordinary  occupa- 
tions, such  as  farming  or  factory  work.  For  this  reason, 
the  opinion  has  arisen  that  the  elementary  school  should 
minister  directly  to  the  practical  needs  of  the  "working 
classes"  and  prepare  indirectly,  if  not  directly,  for  the 
more  common  occupations  of  life.  Even  though  those 
completing  their  school  education  in  the  elementary  school 
do  constitute  the  humbler  classes,  and  do  fill  the  ranks 
of  unskilled  and  non-professional  labor,  this  is  no  final 
argument  why  our  elementary  school  should  be  made  a 
"trade  school."  Trade  school  or  vocational  training  is 
essentially  secondary  education,  and  should  be  built  upon 
or  follow  the  work  of  the  elementary  school. 

In  view,  however,  of  its  function,  elementary  education 
must  be  intensely  practical,  touching  Hfe  at  the  point  of 
greatest  need.  By  reason  of  the  relative  importance  of 
the  industrial  phase  of  social  life  and  of  the  worth  to  the 
individual  of  being  able  to  make  a  living,  the  elementary 
school  must  give  large  place  to  those  branches  of  study  and 
to  those  activities  having  an  industrial  bearing,  while 
special  courses  of  a  decidedly  practical  character  may  well 
be  provided  for  children  of  limited  capacity,  or  behind 
their  grade,  who  are  looking  toward  early  entrance  upon 
life-pursuit.  Yet  the  elementary  school  can  know  no 
"class"  or  "trade"  as  such;  it  can  minister  only  to  social 
needs  and  to  the  need  of  the  citizen,  and  the  citizen  is  more 
than  the  position  occupied  and  the  "trade"  followed  by 
the  man:  the  citizen  is  one  who  must  accept  as  his  own 
the  common  standards  and  modes  of  life  approved  by  our 
social  order  and  be  a  conservator  of  our  national  life  as  a 


i8o      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

whole.  Such  an  education  fits  the  individual  at  least 
indirectly  for  the  ordinary  occupations,  even  though  its 
primary  object  is  so  to  prepare  him  that  he  may  become  a 
conservator  of  the  Uf  e  of  the  American  people  in  its  common 
and  fundamental  features,  and  as  a  member  of  the  American 
democracy  Hve  the  fullest  individual  life  possible  to  him 
imder  the  given  social  conditions. 

Readings 

Monroe,  History  of  Education,  pp.  17  ff. 

Butler,  The  Meaning  of  Education,  pp.  3-34. 

Dewey,  Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education,  pp.  7-13. 

The  School  and  Society,  pp.  19-20. 
Howerth,  Fifth  Year  Book  National  Herbarlian  Society,  pp.  75-85. 
O'Shea,  Education  as  Adjustment,  pp.  93-98,  118-132. 
Home,  The  Philosophy  of  Education,  pp.  150-173.  '" 

Fairbank,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  pp.  135-148. 
Eliot,  Educational  Reform,  pp.  401-418. 
King,  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  pp.  6-23,  206-235. 
Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  32-94. 
Davenport,  Education  for  Efficiency,  pp.  11-36. 
Cubberley,  Changing  Conceptions  of  Education. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CURRICULUM   OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

1.  Education  is  a  Junction  of  society,  and  the  educational 
system  of  a  given  society  must  he  such  as  ivill  provide  for  its 
existence,  development,  ajid  perfection. 

2.  That  system  of  education  which  provides  for  the  exist- 
ence, development,  ajtd  perfection  of  a  given  society  is  at  the 
same  time  the  system  which  "will  provide  for  the  highest  mode 
of  life,  the  highest  development  and  self-realization  of  its 
members. 

3.  The  giving  of  appropriate  expression,  control,  and  direc- 
tion to  the  will,  or  tJie  development  of  the  will,  constitutes  the 
primary  work  of  education, — tlie  end  to  which  every  phase  of 
it  must  he  subordinated. 

4.  The  development  of  the  intellect  is  tJie  secondary  work  of 
education,  a7id  tJie  intellect  must  he  so  developed  with  respect 
to  both  form  and  content  and  only  so  developed  as  to  give  to 
the  will  tJie  necessary  expression  and  tJw  desired  determination. 

5.  Education  must  seek  in  each  period  of  child  life,  to  give 
to  the  will  that  expression,  control,  and  direction,  and  to  the 
intellect  that  form  and  content  appropriate  to  the  development 
of  the  distinctive  will  and  intellectual  characteristics  of  the 
period,  appropriate  to  secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual 
development  in  the  succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure 
ilie  will  and  intellectual  development  desired. 

6.  Education  must  seek  to  lead  tlie  child,  in  each  period  of 


i82      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

life,  to  acquire  such  experience,  to  direct  him  in  working  this 
over  into  such  knowledge,  and  to  guide  him  in  making  such 
use  of  this  knowledge  as  will  give  to  the  will  and  to  the  intellect 
a  development  appropriate  to  the  period,  appropriate  to 
secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual  development  in  the 
succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure  the  will  and  intel- 
lectual development  desired. 

§  I.  The  Problem 

The  means  through  which  the  aim  of  education  is 
realized  are  ins ti" action  and  school  organization. 

Under  the  former  are  to  be  included  the  materials  to 
be  presented,  or  the  curriculum,  and  methods  of  instruction. 
If  we  turn  to  the  curriculum,  our  problem  may  be  stated 
thus:  In  view  of  the  above  principles  and  the  aim  of 
elementary  education,  in  what  ways  do  the  two  factors  — 
the  ends  and  interests  of  which  are  conserved  through  the 
educative  process  —  enter  in  to  determine  the  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school? 

§  2.  The  Materials  of  the  Curriculum 

The  objective  factors  of  social  Hfe  were  found  to  be: 
natural  science,  social  science,  Hterature,  art,  and  religion. 
We  also  learned  that,  without  these  factors  in  some  form 
or  other,  society  neither  exists  nor  develops.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  was  found,  in  studying  the  individual,  that 
his  development  presupposes  materials  of  culture.  Upon 
examination,  the  materials  of  culture  necessary  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  individual  were  found  to  be  the  objective 
factors  implied  in  the  existence  and  development  of  society. 
The  inference  to  be  drawn  is,  if  education  is  to  conserve 
both   the  interests  of  the  individual  and  society,   these 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         1S3 

objective  factors  must  constitute   the  subject-matter  of 
instruction  or  the  materials  of  the  curriculum. 

§  3.  Factors  Determining  the  Curriculum 

Although  the  so-called  objective  factors  are  essential  to 
the  continuation  and  improvement  of  the  social  order  and 
condition  the  development  of  the  individual,  all  parts  of 
these  as  now  known  are  not  equally  essential.  Even  if 
they  were,  the  child  has  neither  the  capacity  nor  the  time 
to  master  them.  There  is  need,  therefore,  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  elementary  school,  to  select  from  this  world 
of  possible  material  those  aspects  to  be  included  within 
the  curriculum.  The  doing  of  this  necessitates  fixing  upon 
the  conditioning  factors  and  upon  how  each  enters  in  to 
determine  a  given  course  of  study.  These  factors  are  the 
life  of  society  and  of  the  child. 

§  4.  Determination  of  Elementary  School  Curric- 
ulum BY  Society 

I.  Determination  by  Given  Society  as  a  Whole.  —  A  given 
society  or  nation,  in  view  more  especially  of  the  first  of 
the  above  principles  and  in  view  of  the  aim  of  elementary 
education,  makes  this  claim  upon  the  curriculum  of  the 
elementary  school:  Its  course  of  study  must  contain 
those  aspects  of  the  objective  factors  which  will  provide 
most  economically  and  efi'ectually  for  the  continuation,  in 
its  basic  features,  of  each  of  the  phases  of  the  given  national 
Ufe. 

This  claim  serves,  first,  as  the  basis  for  determining  the 
range  of  studies  to  be  included  within  the  curriculum. 
Each  phase  of  social  Hfe  presupposes,  as  we  have  seen, 
one  or  more  of  the  objective  factors:  the  industrial,  resting 


i84      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

in  particular  upon  natural  science;  the  social,  upon  social 
science;  the  artistic,  upon  art;  and  the  moral-religious, 
upon  ethics  and  religion.  Elementary  education  has._a_s 
its  aim  not  the  preservation  of  one  or  two  phases  of  social 
Hfe,  but  the  preservation,  in  their  fundamental  features, 
of  all  its  phases.  In  consequence,  there  must  be  included 
within  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  aspects  of 
each  of  the  objective  factors.  That  is,  there  must  be 
included,  in  some  form  or  other,  natural  science,  social 
science,  literature,  art,  and  religion.  The  omission  of  any 
one  or  more  of  these  elements,  as  is  too  often  the  case, 
militates  materially  against  the  elementary  school  fulfilling 
its  function.  All  of  these  elements  are  essential,  if  the 
elementary  school  is  to  do  all  that  it  should  do. 

This  claim  serves,  second,  as  the  basis  for  determining 
the  particular  studies  to  be  included.  Mathematics,  as 
a  part  of  natural  science,  comprises  arithmetic,  algebra, 
geometry,  trigonometry,  calculus,  etc.  History,  as  a 
branch  of  social  science,  includes  the  story  of  all  nations  — 
ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern.  Under  language  —  a 
phase  of  literature  —  is  to  be  brought  the  medium  of  oral 
expression  of  all  Hving  peoples,  as  well  as  of  many  extinct. 
Yet  what  mathematics,  what  history,  what  language, 
what  literature,  what  art  shall  be  selected  as  materials  of 
elementary  school  instruction? 

The  individual,  with  his  particular  capacities,  likes,  and 
dislikes,  cannot  serve  as  the  determining  basis.  For,  if  a 
study  is  regarded  as  the  medium  of  bringing  the  child  to 
the  appreciation  of  given  ideals  or  to  an  appreciation  of  a 
given  knowledge  of  means,  or  both,  the  groimd  of  deciding 
whether  these  ideals  or  this  knowledge  of  means  is  of  worth 
is  not  in  the  life  of  the  individual,  but  in  the  life  of  the 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  185 

given  social  order  of  which  he  is  a  member,     Neither  does, 
culture  nor  the  so-called  "discipline  of  the  mental  faculties" 

"Supply  the  needed  basis.  For  culture  and  mental  discipline 
have  meaning  with  reference  to  a  given  social  situation 
only,  and  what  is  regarded  as  culture  and  discipline  by  one 
nation  may  not  be  so  regarded  by  another.  On  the  side 
of  culture  and  discipline,  Greek,  for  example,  is  universally 
recognized  as  the  language  par  excellence,  but  merely  for 
this  reason  it  cannot  be  included  within  the  course  of  study 
of  the  elementary  school.  In  short,  there  is  no  basis  of 
determining  what  aspects  of- the  different  objective  factors 
shall  be  admitted  into  the  elementary  school  curriculum 
as  subjects  of  study,  other  than  the  claim  imposed  by  each 
■phase  of  the  given  national  life,  i 

When  the  curriculum  of  our  elementary  school  is  deter- 
mined in  view  of  this  claim,  it  must  at  least  include  of 

^tural  science:  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  and  zoology  — 
eTemehtary  science  —  (with  special  reference  to  conserva- 

^tion  and  production),  hygiene  and  sanitation,  geography 
(especially  that  of  the  United  States),  domestic  science, 
manual  training,  and  arithmetic;  of  social  science:  United 
States  history;  of  literature:  Enghsh  language,  literature 
(especially  American),  and  writing;  of  art:  music  and 
drawing;  of  rehgion:  ethics  (especially  American  institu- 
tions and  standards).  The  right  of  any  one  or  of  aU  of 
these  studies  to  a  place  in  our  elementary  school  depends 

lipon  the  extent  to  which  it  embodies  ideals  or  knowledge 
of  processes  and  means  essential  to  the  preservation,  in 
their  basic  features,  of  one  or  more  of  the  phases  of  our 
national  Ufe.  United  States  history,  for  example,  has  a 
place  because  it  acquaints  the  child  with  the  movements 
which  have  brought  about  our  social  order  and  with  the 


1 86       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

principles  and  ideals  underlying  it.  The  child  is  thereby 
prepared  to  act  intelligently  in  the  present  and  to  do  his 
part  in  the  continuation  of  our  democracy.  In  a  similar 
way,  the  right  or  the  lack  of  right  of  each  of  the  above 
branches  of  study  to  a  place  in  the  curriculum  may  be 
determined. 

To  admit  given  studies  into  the  curriculum  of  the 
elementary  school  in  view  of  the  claim  imposed  by  national 
life,  determines  the  elementary  course  of  study  in  a  general 
way  only.  For,  during  the  last  few  decades,  the  develop- 
ment of  materials  that  may  be  included  within  the  studies 
of  the  elementary  school  has  been  wonderful.  Not  only 
have  there  been  additions  to  literature,  but  the  literature 
of  the  world  has,  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century, 
been  rewritten  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  child  and 
brought  within  the  range  of  his  understanding.  Similarly 
with  history:  Not  only  has  the  story  of  all  nations  been 
retold  with  a  view  to  the  interests  of  the  child,  but  each 
nation  is  adding  day  by  day  to  history.  Likewise  with 
geography:  Volumes  have  been  written  in  late  years 
upon  land  forms,  climate,  and  geographic  influences;  new 
industries  have  come  into  being,  new  hnes  of  travel  and 
commerce  developed,  all  adding  to  the  possible  subject- 
matter  of  the  study.  Similarly  with  music:  Fifty  years 
ago,  there  was  little  music  adapted  to  the  ability  and 
appreciation  of  the  child,  whereas  today  there  is  an 
abundance  of  such  music. 

This  increase  in  knowledge  and  the  impossibility  of 
teaching  all  that  might  be  brought  into  the  studies  of  the 
elementary  school  have  led  to  three  convictions: 

First,  we  have  come  to  see  that  the  studies  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  cannot  be  regarded  as  sciences.    To  view 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         187 

a  study  as  a  science  is  to  include  within  it,  apart  from 
whatever  practical  value  this  may  have^  all  information  be- 
'longing  to  the  given  line  of  investigation.  For  example, 
geography,  as  a  science,  comprises  all  knowledge  having  to 
do  with  the  earth  in  relation  to  man;  arithmetic,  all  that 
has  to  do  with  number  in  appUcation  to  measurement. 
The  history  of  the  United  States,  as  told  by  Avery,  com- 
prises sixteen  large  volumes.  In  short,  the  increase  of 
knowledge  has  forced  the  teacher  from  viewing  the  studies 
of  the  school  as  sciences  and  laid  upon  her  the  necessity 
of_selecting  from  the  possible  materials  that  which  is  to 
be  taught  in  a  given  subject. 

Second,  we  have  come  to  see  that  the  studies  of  the 
school  are  not  static,  — ;  the  same  today  as  yesterday,  — 
but  that  there  is  constant  change  in  their  content.  So 
great  have  these  changes  been  that  there  is  a  radical 
difference  between  the  three  R's  of  today  and  of  fifty 
years  ago,  between  the  history  and  geography  of  the 
present  and  of  the  early  seventies.  In  a  word,  we  have 
come  to  see  that  the  studies  of  the  elementary  school 
change  in  respect  to  content  mth  every  considerable  in- 
crease in  knowledge  and  with  every  modification  in  the 
conditions  controlling  the  fife  of  the  school. 

Third,  it  is  evident  that  the  studies  of  the  school  are  but 
a  means  to  an  end.  That  is,  they  are  not  things  of  worth 
in  themselves,  but  things  to  be  used  in  the  accomplishment 
of  definite  practical  purposes.  The  test  of  instruction  lies 
not  in  whether  the  child  has  acquired  a  specific  amount  of 
a  given  kind  of  knowledge,  but  whether  he  has  been 
enabled  through  the  study  of  a  given  branch  to  do  certain 
specific  things,  —  brought  to  act  in  certain  desired  ways. 

The  increase  in  knowledge  and  the  rise  of  these  convic- 


1 88       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

tions  have  rendered  more  important  than  ever  before  the 
question:  Of  the  materials  available,  which  shall  be  in- 
cluded within  the  studies  of  the  school? 

In  answering  this  question,  it  is  important  to  distinguish 
fact  from  principle.  A  fact  is  something  done,  or  that  has 
come  to  pass,  —  an  act,  an  event,  an  item,  or  circumstance, 
—  whereas  a  principle  is  a  large  truth,  an  organizing  idea, 
a  conception,  an  ideal,  or  a  belief  that  exercises  general  direc- 
tive influence  upon  hfe  and  conduct.  The  facts  of  a  study 
are  numberless.  There  are,  for  example,  sixty-one  thou- 
sand and  more  postofl&ces  in  the  United  States;  the  name 
and  location  of  each  might  be  learned  as  geography.  The 
facts  about  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  alone  fill  a  dozen 
volumes  the  size  of  an  unabridged  dictionary,  all  of  which 
might  be  included  in  the  study  of  United  States  history. 
There  are  some  450,000  words  in  the  EngHsh  language, 
each  of  which  might  be  brought  into  the  study  of  the 
parts  of  speech  in  grammar.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
number  of  principles,  interpretative  and  organizing  ideas 
or  ideals  of  life  in  a  given  study  are  relatively  few.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  such  branches  as  arithmetic  and 
grammar,  and  almost  as  true  of  literature,  geography,  and 
history. 

Principles  are  the  valuable  parts  of. ^ny  subject;  for  it 
is  through  these  that  facts  or  events  are  interpreted  and 
organized,  that  our  emotions  and  sentiments  are  perma- 
nently aroused  and  crystallized,  that  hfe  is  defined  and 
action  controlled  and  directed.  From  this  point  of  view, 
facts  are  of  importance  and  of  value^only  in  so  far  as  they 
enable  the  child  to  gain  insight  into  principles,  and  afford 
opportunity  to  gain  control  of  these  through  appHcation 
and  use.    The  facts  of  a  study  should  not,  however,  be. 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         189 

ignored  nor  their  worth  underestimated,  as  they  bear  the 
same  relation  to  the  right  acquisition,  to  the  understanding, 
and  to  the  power  to  apply  large  ideas  as  the  mining  of 
quartz  does  to  the  getting  of  gold.  Still,  it  is  tlie  principle, 
the  behef,  the  ideal  illustrated  by  the  facts  and  not  the 
facts  in  themselves  that  have  value. 

In  the  selection  of  the  materials  to  be  included  within  a 
given  branch,  therefore,  such  facts  and  only  such  should  be 
admitted  as  are  on  the  one  hand  best  suited  to  enable  the 
child  to  acquire  with  ease  and  economy  and  on  the  other 
are  needed  to  give  command  in  use  of  the  larger  teach- 
ings of  the  subject.  The  test  to  be  imposed  upon  every 
fact  or  set  of  facts  before  these  are  admitted  into  a  study 
of  the  school  is  therefore  this:  Is  this  fact  or  set  of  facts 
necessary  to  the  ready  understanding  and  control  of  a 
"principle  or  ideal  belonging  to  this  subject  and  at  the  same 
time,  of  all  the  possible  facts,  the  best  adapted  to  yield 
such  insight  and  power? 

Though  there  are  relatively  few  large  truths  in  any  study, 
the  form  these  truths  take  varies,  as  the  same  principle 
or  ideal  finds  expression  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  central 
idea,  for  example,  in  Hawthorne's  "The  Great  Stone  Face" 
is:  We  become  v.hat  we  strive  to  become.  This  is  also 
the  commanding  idea  in  "The  Blue  Bell,"  by  Van  Dyke, 
in  "How  Cedric  Became  a  Knight,"  and  is  practically  the 
thought  of  Longfellow's  "Excelsior"  and  Lowell's  "Long- 
ing," as  well  as  of  other  selections.  Likewise  in  arithmetic: 
Whenever  two  elements  of  an  arithmetical  problem  are 
given,  the  third  may  be  found,  and  this  is  true  whether  in 
whole  numbers,  fractions,  or  in  percentage  and  its  applica- 
tions. Similarly,  the  noun  idea  is  basic  in  the  conception 
of   the    substantive    infinitive,    substantive   phrase,    and 


190      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

substantive  clause,  but  the  form  the  idea  takes  differs  in 
each  case.  In  history,  relatively  the  same  experiences  are 
repeated  in  the  exploration  and  settlement  of  the  different 
sections  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains;  to  know  Daniel 
Boone  and  the  settlement  of  Kentucky  is  consequently 
to  know  the  pioneers  and  early  history  of  other  states. 
Different  men  typify  the  same  ideas  and  standards  of 
courage  and  honesty,  so  to  know  William  Lloyd  Garrison 
is  to  know  all  aboHtionists.  The  same  development  is 
repeated  again  and  again  in  different  sections,  and  for  this 
reason  the  history  of  transportation  is  everywhere  essentially 
similar.  Likewise  in  geography:  The  Atlantic  coast  and 
coastal  plain  are  typical  in  their  geographic  significance  of  all 
coasts  and  coastal  plains,  and  the  Mississippi  River  system 
is  typical  of  all  rivers.  Dairying  as  carried  on  in  Southern 
Wisconsin  is  representative  of  dairjdng  in  other  sections; 
so  also  fruit  growing  in  New  York,  lumbering  in  Michigan, 
gold  mining  in  CaHfornia,  coal  mining  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
steel  making  in  Cleveland  are  typical  industries.  To  admit 
into  a  study  all  the  different  expressions  of  a  process,  a 
principle,  an  idea,  or  an  ideal  is  consequently  to  multiply 
detail  and  add  confusion  and  complexity. 

The  further  test  that  must  be  imposed  upon  the  ma- 
terials to  be  admitted  into  the  studies  of  the  school,  then, 
is  this :  Is  the  expression  of  a  given  process,  principle,^-or 
large  idea  representative,  is  it  typical,  and  is  the  admission 
of  this  particular  typical  expression  necessary  to  the  full 
understanding  and  command  of  the  process,  principle,  or 
ideal  in  question?  To  impose  this  test  with  a  heavy  hand 
upon  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  would  be  to  make 
large  use  of  types,  and  to  confine  our  attention  to  rich  topics. 

Because  a  given  set  of  facts  is  well  adapted  to  the  presen- 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         191 

tation  of  a  process  or  principle,  and  because  a  given  expres- 
sion is  typical,  is  no  final  reason  why  it  should  be  included 
in  a  given  study.  So  limited  is  the  elementary  school 
period,  so  immature  is  the  child,  so  pressing  are  the  needs 
of  present-day  living,  and  so  abundant  are  the  larger 
teachings  of  the  different  school  branches,  when  taken 
together,  that  there  is  need,  of  selecting  with  care,  from 
the  processes,  principles,  and  ideals  available,  those  to 
be  included  within  the  studies  of  the  elementary  school. 

It  is  in  supplying  the  basis  of  this  selection  that  the 
claim  imposed  by  national  life  enters,  in  a  third  way,  to 
determine  the  elementary  course  of  study.  For  the  final 
basis  of  selection  is  to  be  found  in  what  it  is  essential  that 
the  child  should  know  and  should  be  able  to  accomplish  in 
order  to  participate  in  each  phase  of  our  social  life  and  do 
his  part. 

The  final  test  to  be  imposed  upon  the  materials  of  ele- 
mentary instruction  is  therefore  this:  Is  a  knowledge  and 
command  of  this  process,  principle,  Interpretative  idea, 
or  ideal  essential  to  the  preservation,  in  their  fundamental 
features,  of  one  or  more  phases  of  our  national  life,  or,  put 
in  other  words,!  essential  to  prepare  the  child  to  make  a 
living  ur.ier  present  economic  conditions;^  essential  to  pre- 
pare him  to  fulfill  the  obligations  of  the  parent  and  to 
perform  the  duties  of  the  citizen;  or  essential  to  prepare 
Kim  for  a  rich  personal  life  and  a  Hfe  of  rectitude  in  our  social 
order?  Though  this  test  ignores  studies  as  sciences,  and 
all  claims  ot  knowledge  for  the  sake  of  knowledge,  it  recog- 
nizes that  we  are  an  industrial  and  commercial  people  and 
that  the  work  the  boys  and  girls  now  in  our  elementary 
schools  will  find  to  do  will  be  in  the  lines  of  industry  and 
trade;   it  recognizes  also  that  there  are  domestic  duties  to 


192       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

be  performed,  complex  problems  In  national,  state,  and 
municipal  government  to  be  solved,  and  that  there  are 
vital  moral  issues  to  be  met  both  in  the  life  of  the  individual 
and  of  the  nation. 

■  The  determination,  in  view  of  this  test,  of  the  processes, 
principles,  ideals,  or  large  topics  to  be  included  in  the 
studies  of  our  elementary  school,  sheds  further  light  upon 
the  character  of  these  branches.  The  language  taught 
must  be  the  Enghsh  language;  the  literature  read  and 
studied  must,  to  a  large  extent,  be  American  Uterature; 
the  penmanship  taught  cannot  be  the  writing  of  Greek,  or 
Hebrew,  or  Chinese  —  it  must  be  the  writing  of  English. 
Arithmetic  must  consist  in  the  application  of  number  to 
business  operations  and  industrial  activities  as  we  know 
and  practice  them.  History  cannot  be  general  history, 
but  the  history  of  the  United  States;  geography  must  be 
confined  primarily  to  our  national  domain,  and  so  with  all 
other  branches.  In  a  word,  the  studies  of  our  elementary 
school  must  be  intensely  American,  that  is,  the  materials 
or  topics  included  must  embody  those  ideals  and  that 
knowledge  of  means  essential  to  making  a  living  and  to 
living  well  in  our  democracy. 

The  admission  of  a  topic  into  a  study  of  the  elementary 
curriculum  does  not,  however,  fix  what  is  to  be  taught 
through  it,  or  how  the  truth  taught  is  to  be  applied;  in  a 
word,  it  does  not  fix  the  use  to  be  made  of  it. .  Take,  for 
example,  Lowell's  "Longing."  As  a  theme  in  reading,  it 
may  be  used  as  a  formal  exercise  in  oral  expression,  or  to 
give  knowledge  of  Lowell  as  a  poet,  or  as  a  means  of  teaching 
the  value  and  influence  upon  life  of  noble  thoughts  and 
ideals.  But  which  of  these  is  the  proper  use  can  only  be 
determined  in  view  of  the  claim  rested  by  social  life  in  its 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         193 

entirety  upon  the  elementary  school.  Like^^ase,  no  topic 
carries  within  itself  the  determination  of  its  relative  place 
within  a  study.  As  arithmetical  themes,  there  is  nothing 
in  interest  or  cube  root  to  tell  which  is  of  the  greater  relative 
worth.  This  can  be  decided  alone  from  without  and  more 
especially  in  view  of  the  relation  of  the  given  topic  to  the 
fulfillment  of  the  aim  of  elementary  education.  In  short, 
it  is  the  claim  made  by  the  phases  of  national  life  upon  the 
curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  that  serves  as  the  basis 
for  determining  the  final  use  or  application  to  be  made  of  a 
topic  and  affixing  its  relative  importance  in  a  given  subject 
of  the  elementary  course  of  study. 

That  the  studies  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  are 
not  of  equal  worth  is  generally  recognized.  The  grounds 
of  this  conclusion  are,  however,  not  to  be  found  in  the  sub- 
jects themselves,  nor  in  the  above  claim  alone,  but  more 
especially  in  the  relative  importance,  in  the  Hfe  of  a  given 
social  whole,  of  the  phase  or  phases  thereof,  the  needs  and 
demands  of  which  are  met  by  a  given  study. 

Without  entering  into  the  implied  argument,  and  pro- 
ceeding upon  the  principle  that  self-preservation  is  the  first 
law  of  social  as  well  as  of  individual  Hfe,  the  relative  value 
of  the  phases  of  society  is  about  as  follows:  As  phases  of 
first  importance  are  the  industrial  and  the  social,  of  second 
importance  is  the  moral-religious,  and  of  third,  the  intel- 
lectual and  artistic.  '~' 

If  such  a  distribution  of  values  is  accepted,  those  studies 
which  contribute  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  preservation 
of  the  industrial  and  social  phases  are  of  first  importance, 
those  ministering  to  the  preservation  of  the  moral-religious 
of  second  importance,  and  those  fostering  the  continuation 
of  the  intellectual  and  artistic  of  third  importance. 


194       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION  , 

To  summarize,  the  life  of  a  given  society  or  nation  as  a 
whole,  by  virtue  of  the  claim  it  imposes,  enters  into  the 
determination  of  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school 
in  that  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  different  phases  of 
national  life  are  the  final  factor  in  conditioning  the  range 
of  studies,  in  conditioning  the  particular  branches  admitted, 
and  the  relative  value  assigned  them;  it  also  enters  in  as 
the  final  factor  in  conditioning  the  materials  or  topics  to 
be  included  within  each  study,  in  conditioning  the  relative 
place  of  a  topic  within  a  particular  branch,  and  the  use  to 
be  made  of  the  given  topic. 

2.  Determination  by  Given  Community  or  Local  Condi- 
tions. —  A  given  community  is  a  city,  village,  or  rural  settle- 
ment which  forms  an  integral  part  of  a  larger  social  whole. 
As  such,  a  given  community  is  not  a  part  of  the  social 
whole,  Uke  the  spoke  is  of  a  wheel,  the  roof,  of  a  house,  the 
leaf,  of  a  tree.  It  is  rather  an  expression  of  the  fundamental 
features  of  the  life  of  the  larger  social  order  of  which  it  is  a 
part;  it  may  be  at  the  same  time  an  expression  of  some  one 
or  more  of  these  features  in  a  particular  form,  and  this 
special  manifestation  may  differentiate  the  given  commu- 
nity from  all  others.  For  example,  Chicago,  as  a  particular 
community,  is  a  reproduction  of  the  fundamental  features 
of  American  life;  particular  emphasis  is,  however,  given 
to  certain  aspects,  and  Chicago  is  famous  for  business. 
Boston  hkewise  reproduces  our  national  life,  but  there  the 
cultural  element  finds  special  expression. 

The  relation  between  national  and  local  life  is,  however, 
a  reciprocal  one.  National  life  does  not  exist  apart  from 
particular  communities,  and  a  given  local  life  is  impossible 
apart  from  a  given  nation.  To  illustrate,  our  national  life 
has  no  existence  apart  from  communities  like  Boston,  New 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         195 

York,  Chicago,  and  in  turn  social  life  as  found  in  such 
communities  could  not  exist  apart  from  our  democracy. 
For  the  essential  features  of  national  life  constitute  the 
basic  elements  in  local  life,  and  the  particular  expression 
of  national  hfe  and  the  emphasis  of  some  aspect  of  it  in 
the  life  of  respective  communities  supply  the  variations 
essential  to  the  highest  national  existence. 

By  reason  of  the  relation  between  the  nation  as  a  whole 
and  separate  component  communities,  if  a  given  society 
is  to  be  maintained  in  its  fundamental  features,  and  also 
in  its  fullness  and  richness,  the  basic  aspects  of  each  phase 
of  the  life  of  the  larger  social  whole  must,  on  the  one  hand, 
find  expression  in  the  life  of  each  separate  community,  and, 
on  the  other,  the  particular  manifestations  of  the  larger 
social  life  distinctive  of  each  community  must  be  conserved 
in  so  far  as  these  expressions  are  in  accord  with  the  general 
spirit  and  ends  of  the  given  national  order. 

From  the  condition  of  maintaining  national  life  and  in 
view  of  the  aim  of  elementary  education,  a  given  elementary 
school  has  a  national  and  a  local  function,  its  national  and 
primary  function  being  to  provide  for  the  embodiment,  in 
the  life  of  the  given  community,  of  the  basic  features  of  the 
different  phases  of  the  Hfe  of  the  nation,  and  its  local  and 
..secondary  function  being  to  provide,  in  so  far  as  these  are 
in  conformity  with  the  general  principles  of  the  social  whole, 
for  the  preservation  of  the  fundamental  aspects  of  the 
particular  expression  of  national  life  as  manifest  in  that 
of  the  given  community. 

The  dual  function  of  the  local  elementary  school  makes 
two  claims  upon  its  curriculum.  First  and  primarily, 
its  course  of  study  must  contain  those  ideals  and  that 
knowledge  of  means  essential  to  embody,  in  the  life  of  the 


196       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

given  community,  the  fundamental  features  of  each  phase  of 
the  life  of  the  nation.  Second  and  secondarily,  its  course 
of  study  must  contain  those  ideals  and  that  knowledge  of 
means  essential  to  the  preservation,  in  their  basic  aspects, 
of  the  particular  and  approved  variations  of  national  life 
as  manifest  Ln  the  given  locaUty. 

The  first  and  primary  claim  registered  against  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  local  elementary  school,  it  will  be  observed, 
is  but  the  claim  made  upon  the  elementary  course  of 
study  by  society  as  a  whole,  formulated  with  reference  to 
local  conditions. 

Life  in  no  two  communities  is  exactly  aUke.  Differences 
in  the  personnel  of  citizenship  exist.  The  people  in  one 
community  are  American  bom  and  bred,  in  another,  they 
are  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  foreigners.  The  chief  industry 
in  one  community  may  be  farming,  in  another,  manufactur- 
ing, in  still  another,  coal  mining.  These  differences  in 
citizenship  and  occupation  act  to  modify  the  expression 
in  a  particular  community  of  the  basic  features  of  our 
national  life.  In  one  place  the  morals  may  be  below 
standard,  in  another,  intelligence,  or  modes  of  social  inter- 
course, or  artistic  taste. 

Notwithstanding  these  differences  in  community  life, 
local  conditions  have  nothing  to  do  with  determining  the 
range  of  studies  or  with  determining  the  particular  branches 
admitted  into  the  curriculum  of  the  local  schools,  in  view 
of  the  primary  claim  registered  against  it.  For  the  range 
of  studies  and  the  branches  best  adapted  to  provide  for  the 
existence  in  its  general  features  of  the  larger  social  order 
are  at  the  same  time  those  best  adapted  to  embody,  in  the 
life  of  the  given  conmiunity,  the  basic  elements  of  the  given 
national  life. 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEINIENTARY  SCHOOL         197 

The  same  may  be  said  with  respect  to  the  selection  of 
topics  within  the  studies  admitted  in  view  of  this  primary 
claim.  These  must  be  selected  alone  with  regard  to  the 
needs  of  the  nation  as  a  whole,  and  not  with  reference  to 
those  of  the  given  community. 

When  it  comes,  however,  to  determining  the  relative 
importance  of  topics  within  a  subject  and  to  fixing  upon  the 
final  use  of  these,  this  cannot  be  done  alone  in  view  of 
the  needs  of  the  larger  social  life.  For,  in  the  embodiment 
of  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  hfe  of  the  nation  in 
that  of  a  given  community,  local  conditions  must  be  taken 
into  consideration.  To  illustrate,  in  a  settlement  where 
American  Hfe  is  at  its  best  and  where  the  on-coming  genera- 
tion breathes  in  its  spirit  from  birth,  those  topics  of  history 
and  civics  shedding  hght  upon  the  principles  and  spirit  of 
American  institutions  need  not  be  given  the  same  impor- 
tance as  in  a  community  composed  in  large  part  of 
foreigners,  who  are  more  or  less  ignorant  of  American  Hfe 
and  its  principles.  Likewise,  in  the  determination  of  the 
final  use  to  be  made  of  a  topic,  the  special  need  or  deficiency 
in  local  Hfe,  as  judged  by  national  standards,  must  be  taken 
into  account.  To  be  sure,  the  ultimate  end  to  be  attained 
through  the  study  of  the  given  topic  is  set  by  the  social 
whole,  yet  the  particular  use  to  be  made,  the  particular 
application  to  be  given,  is  conditioned  by  Hfe  as  found  in 
the  given  community.  That  is,  if  the  elementary  school 
of  a  given  community  is  to  accompHsh  its  aim  with  reference 
to  the  Hfe  of  the  nation,  the  treatment  and  use  of  a  topic 
—  say,  cleanliness  —  must  necessarily  dilTer  in  an  industrial 
center,  in  a  crowded  tenement  section,  and  in  an  agricultural 
district. 

Local  conditions  are  also  a  factor  in  determining  the 


igS       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

relative  value  of  the  studies  admitted  in  view  of  this  first 
claim.  For,  if  the  elementary  school  is  to  accomphsh 
its  primary  function,  language,  history,  and  civics,  for 
example,  must  be  assigned  greater  value  in  a  locality  con- 
taining a  large  foreign  element  than  in  a  community  com- 
posed of  native  born  Americans.  Similarly,  literature  and 
art  must  be  given  a  larger  place  in  a  locality  grossly 
materialistic  than  in  one  highly  artistic  and  spiritual, 
manual  training  and  drawing  must  receive  greater  em- 
phasis in  an  industrial  than  in  an  agricultural  centre. 

That  part  of  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school 
determined  in  view  of  the  first  claim  imposed  upon  it,  or 
in  view  of  the  needs  of  national  life,  may  be  characterized 
as  the  primary  portion,  and  in  its  determination  the  Hfe 
of  the  given  community  thus  enters  in  as  a  secondary  factor 
in  conditioning  the  relative  place  and  the  use  to  be  made 
of  the  topics  included  within  the  different  studies  and  in 
conditioning  the  relative  value  of  the  several  branches.  The 
degree,  however,  to  which  even  this  is  true  depends  upon 
the  extent  to  which  local  conditions  must  be  taken  into 
account,  if  the  elementary  school  of  the  given  community 
is  to  fulfill  its  national  or  primary  function. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  determination  of  the  course 
of  study  of  the  elementary  school  in  view  of  the  second 
claim  imposed  upon  it,  it  is  the  interests  and  the  needs  of 
the  given  community  that  become  of  first  importance.  To 
be  sure,  no  feature  of  social  life  can  be  fostered  unless  this 
is  in  conformity  with  the  general  principles  and  spirit  of 
the  nation.  Yet  within  the  range  of  approved  manifesta- 
tions, which  of  these  shall  be  chosen  by  a  given  community 
to  be  preserved  through  the  medium  of  its  elementary 
school  is  conditioned  by  what  aspects  find  particular  expres- 


CURRICULU:M  of  elementary  school         199 

sion  and  come  to  constitute  the  special  interest  of  the  given 
community.  This  will  vary;  with  one  community  it  will 
be  agriculture,  with  another,  stock-raising,  with  another, 
coal  mining,  and  so  on  through  the  range  of  life's  needs  and 
the  catalogue  of  industry,  trade,  and  commerce. 

It  is  in  meeting  particular  local  conditions  that  the  ele- 
mentary school  finds  its  local  and  secondary  aim,  and  it  is 
in  view  of  the  consequent  claim  upon  the  elementary  course 
of  study  that  the  needs  of  the  given  community  serve  as 
the  basis  for  the  admission  of  studies,  of  the  selection  of 
topics  to  be  included  in  these,  of  fixing  the  relative  place 
and  final  use  of  the  topics  selected,  and  of  determining 
the  relative  value  of  the  subjects  admitted.  In  short,  in 
view  of  this  second  claim,  the  hfe  of  the  given  community 
becomes  the  primary  factor  in  determining  what  may  be 
characterized  as  the  secondary  portion  of  the  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school. 

The  extent,  however,  to  wliich  this  second  claim  may  be 
taken  into  account  is  conditioned  by  the  primary  aim  of 
elementary  education,  and  it  is  only  when  the  elementary 
school  is  in  position  to  fulfill  its  national  function,  and  then 
only,  that  the  particular  interests  of  the  given  community 
may  be  taken  into  account  in  the  determination  of  the 
course  of  study. 

§  5.  Determination  of  the  Elementary  School 
Curriculum  by  the  Child 

I.  The  Adaptation  of  the  Curriculum.  —  In  view  of  the 
last  four  of  the  above  principles,  the  child  has  the  following 
claim  upon  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school: 
The  curriculum  must  be  so  adjusted  to  the  will  and  to  the 
intellect,  during  each  period  of  development,  as  to  give  to 


200      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  intellect  a  normal  form  and  content,  and  still  a  form  and 
content  adapted  to  the  free  expression  of  the  will  and  ade- 
quate to  the  exercise  of  the  desired  control  and  direction. 

This  claim  implies,  on  the  one  hand,  the  adjustment  of 
the  course  of  study  to  the  elements  of  the  will  and  to  the 
mental  capacities  distinctive  of  the  given  period  of  child 
life.  Opportunity  must  be  given  for  the  normal  expression 
of  the  will  and  the  free  exercise  of  the  intellect,  that  the 
child  may  thereby  be  stimulated  to  develop  according  to 
his  inherited  tendencies.  On  the  other  hand,  this  claim 
impHes  control  and  direction,  that  is,  such  an  adjustment  of 
the  course  of  study  that  the  elements  of  the  will  are  excited 
not  only  to  spontaneous  expression,  but  to  expression  in 
given  ways.  For,  though  the  curriculum  —  in  view  of 
one  phase  of  this  claim  —  must  follow  the  instincts  and 
inclinations  of  the  child,  it  must  do  this,  in  view  of  the  other, 
that  their  expression  may  be  controlled  and  directed.  This 
guidance,  coming  from  the  way  hereditary  tendencies  are 
stimulated  to  find  expression  in  action,  is  not  therefore 
something  imposed  from  without,  but  arises  from  within, 
and  because  it  comes  from  within,  the  child  develops 
normally,  yet  in  desired  ways. 

In  the  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  there  is  therefore 
involved,  on  the  side  of  the  will,  a  knowledge  of  the  impulses 
and  instincts  distinctive  of  each  period  of  child  Hfe,  also  a 
knowledge  of  their  normal  expression  in  action  and  of  the 
expression  which  must  be  given  to  them  in  view  of  the 
desired  will  development.  With  respect  to  materials, 
there  is  presupposed  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  ideals  and 
means  appropriate  to  excite  the  impulses  and  instiQcts  of 
the  period  to  expression,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  ideals  and 
means  suited  to  supply  the  basis  for  exercising  over  them  the 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         201 

desired  control  and  direction.  On  the  side  of  the  intellect, 
there  is  implied  insight  into  its  natural  form  and  content 
on  each  level  of  mental  Hfe,  and  into  the  form  and  content 
that  must  be  given  it,  also  a  knowledge  of  the  materials 
appropriate  to  foster,  in  each  period,  a  normal,  yet  desired 
development. 

To  adapt  the  curriculum  to  the  intellect  and  to  adapt 
it  to  the  will  are,  however,  not  two  different  things.  By 
reason  of  the  relation  between  the  two,  instruction  adapted 
to  give,  at  each  period,  the  normal  expression,  yet  desired 
determination  to  the  will,  is  at  the  same  time  the  instruction 
suited  to  give  to  the  intellect  its  normal,  yet  needed, 
form  and  content. 

In  the  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to  the  life  of  the  child, 
there  are  two  signs  that  may  be  taken  as  guides.  The 
immediate  one  is  interest.  Interest  is  a  feeling  of  pleasure 
on  the  part  of  the  learner  in  the  information  gained;  it  is, 
however,  more  especially  a  feeling  that  the  given  information 
has  worth  to  the  self  as  the  medium  of  revealing  new 
ideals  or  of  supplying  the  means  of  attaining  cherished  ends. 
As  a  feeling  of  worth  and  as  the  immediate  sign  of  adjust- 
ment, interest  has  great  value,  and  its  absence  on  the  part 
of  the  child  at  any  point  may  be  taken  as  a  signal  of  danger. 
Arising  as  it  does  out  of  so  adjusting  instruction  to  the  will 
and  intellectual  life  of  the  period  that  each  is  given  free 
expression,  interest  is  at  best  but  a  by-product  of  the 
educative  process.  As  a  by-product,  though  a  valuable 
one  to  foster,  the  excitation  of  interest  should  never  be 
confused  with  the  primary  purpose  of  education  —  will 
and  intellectual  development. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  Herbartians  err. 
Interest  is  exalted  by  them  into  an  end,  and  the  aim  of 


202       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

instruction  defined  as  the  development  of  a  many-sided 
interest.  Interest,  however,  instead  of  being  an  end,  is 
at  best  merely  a  sign  that  instruction  is  adapted  to  the 
accomplishment  of  its  purpose.  Consequently,  to  exalt 
interest  into  an  end  is  to  mistake  the  conditions  out  of 
which  it  arises  and  to  give  to  it  a  false  place  and  value  in 
education. 

Though  interest  may  be  taken  as  the  immediate  sign  of 
adjustment,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  the  final  one.  This 
is  to  be  found  in  the  acceptance  by  the  child  of  the  new  ends 
or  the  new  means  presented,  and  in  the  use  of  these  in 
controlling  and  directing  his  activities.  Consequently,  if 
the  child  rejects  the  ends  or  ideals  presented,  or  fails  to 
use  the  new  knowledge  of  means,  the  given  instruction 
does  not  meet  the  needs  of  his  Hfe  at  the  given  time,  —  is 
not  adapted  to  his  needs.  Use  by  the  recipient  in  the 
expression,  control,  and  direction  of  hfe  thus  becomes  the 
final  test  of  adjustment,  and  it  is  therefore  action  or  conduct 
in  the  Hght  of  or  upon  the  basis  of  the  information  imparted 
that  constitutes  the  ultimate  sign  of  adaptation. 

2.  Ways  the  Child  Determines  the  Curriculum.  —  By 
making  the  foregoing  claims  upon  the  curriculum,  the 
child  becomes  a  factor  in  determining  the  form  and 
character  of  instruction  (that  is,  in  conditioning  the 
type  of  materials  that  must  be  included  in  the  course 
of  study,  the  kind  of  words  in  which  instruction  is 
clothed,  and  the  way  it  is  presented).  To  illustrate, 
toward  the  age  of  six  and  thereabout,  owing  to  the  rising 
force  of  the  intellectual  impulse,  the  child  becomes  ex- 
ceedingly inquisitive.  Because  of  his  lack  of  permanent 
interests  and  of  mental  power,  he  is  uninterested  in  and 
unable  to  grasp  any  systematic  presentation  of  a  subject. 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         203 

Nevertheless,  by  virtue  of  his  needs  and  the  resulting  desire 
to  know,  and  to  act,  he  delights  in  fairy  tales,  legends,  and 
stories.  Because  these  appeal  to  him  and  supply  materials 
for  the  free  expression  of  his  impulses  and  the  free  exercise 
of  his  intellectual  capacities,  these  are  suited  to  his  instruc- 
tion, and  some  such  materials  must  be  used  if  the  child  is 
to  be  given  a  normal  development  at  this  time.  At  this 
age  the  constructive  instinct  also  appears,  and  the  child 
finds  pleasure  in  making  things.  Because  of  his  lack  of 
intelUgence  and  skill,  he  is  unable  to  understand  and  to 
undertake  any  difficult  construction.  Yet  he  appreciates 
and  is  able  to  do  simple  tasks.  Consequently,  such  exer- 
cises must  be  employed,  if  the  materials  of  instruction  are  to 
appeal  to  the  child  and  be  suited  to  tliis  aspect  and  stage 
of  his  development.  Likewise,  in  all  periods,  whether  in 
infancy,  childhood,  or  youth,  the  psychical  needs  arising 
from  the  impulsive  and  intellectual  Hfe  of  the  child  enter 
in  to  condition  the  form  and  character  of  the  subject-matter 
to  be  used  and  therefore  to  be  included  within  the 
curriculum. 

It  is  but  a  corollary  of  tliis  to  say  it  is  the  conditions 
imposed  by  the  above  claim,  or  the  needs  of  child  life  at 
different  periods  of  development,  that  supply  the  basis  of 
determining  the  way  in  which  the  materials  of  instruction 
are  distributed  within  the  different  branches  and  the  course 
of  study.  For  example,  there  is  nothing  in  literature,  as 
such,  which  impels  the  reading  of  Mother  Goose  Rhymes 
or  the  Hke  before  the  study  of  "  The  Great  Stone  Face." 
The  necessity  arises  from  the  needs  and  Hmitations  of 
the  learner. 

Since  the  child  develops  normally  only  as  the  impulses 
of  a  period  are  excited  to  expression  and  the  intellect  exer- 


204       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

cised  in  a  way  to  give  these  appropriate  control  and  direction 
in  action,  to  employ  the  materials  of  instruction  to  this  end 
is  the  use  that  must  be  made  of  them  at  the  given  time. 
To  illustrate  —  fairy  tales,  legends,  and  stories,  as  a  general 
thing,  embody  a  moral  and  may  be  used  to  teach  morals. 
However,  the  need  of  the  child,  when  he  is  the  most 
interested  in  these,  is  not  moral  instruction,  but  an 
opportunity  to  satisfy  his  curiosity  and  to  exercise  on 
materials  within  the  range  of  his  appreciation  the  rising 
powers  of  his  intellect.  To  the  satisfaction  of  these  psy- 
chical needs,  fairy  tales,  legends,  and  stories  must  be 
employed  at  this  time,  if  they  are  to  be  truly  educative. 
The  child  may,  to  be  sure,  discover  later  that  in  learning 
these  he  was  becoming  acquainted  with  a  portion  of  world 
literature,  and  he  may  also  discover  that  in  these  are 
embodied  many  of  the  principles  of  individual  and  social 
life.  Yet  bringing  the  child  to  the  consciousness  of  this 
at  the  time  these  are  particularly  appropriate,  constitutes 
no  part  of  their  use.  Likewise  with  the  earlier  constructive 
exercises.  The  need  of  the  child,  when  constructive 
exercises  are  most  suitable,  is  activity,  and  they  afford 
such  opportunity;  when  this  is  done,  they  have  served 
their  immediate  purpose.  True,  the  child  may  learn  later 
that  these  exercises  were  illustrative  of  the  typical  indus- 
tries of  life,  but  to  make  him  conscious  of  this  forms  no 
part  of  their  use  in  this  earliest  period  of  formal  education. 
In  like  manner  throughout  all  stages  of  education,  the  use 
to  be  made  of  the  subject-matter  of  instruction  at  a  given 
time  is  conditioned  by  that  which  must  be  made  in  order 
to  give  to  the  impulsive  and  intellectual  life  of  the  child 
the  development  appropriate  to  the  given  period. 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         205 

§6.  The  Determination  of  the  Elementary  School 
Curriculum  by  Society  Versus  its  Deter- 
mination BY  the  Child 

If  we  maintain  that  the  needs  of  national  and  local  life 
are  the  final  factors  in  the  determination  of  the  curriculum 
of  the  elementary  school  with  reference  to  the  range  of 
branches,  with  respect  to  the  particular  studies  admitted, 
and  to  the  relative  value  assigned  them,  also  the  final  factor 
in  conditioning  the  topics  included  within  each  study  and 
in  determining  the  relative  importance  in  a  branch  and  in 
the  final  use  to  be  made  of  a  topic,  and  yet  hold  that  the 
needs  of  child  life  are  a  factor  in  conditioning  the  form 
and  type  of  materials  included,  in  determining  how  they 
shall  be  distributed,  and  what  use  shall  be  made  of  them 
at  a  given  time,  it  appears  as  if  we  had  involved  ourselves 
in  a  contradiction,  for  the  determining  of  the  elementary 
course  of  study  by  society  in  the  ways  suggested  seems  to 
preclude  its  determination  by  the  child  as  indicated,  and 
vice  versa. 

I.  Determining  Claims  Supplementary.  —  From  the  rela- 
tion existing  between  the  individual  and  society,  the  claims 
made  upon  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  by 
national  life  and  those  registered  against  it  by  child  life 
cannot  be  contradictory.  Those  imposed  by  the  social 
order  represent  the  end  of  the  educative  process  —  the 
knowledge  of  ideals  and  of  means,  the  habits  and  skill  that 
will  be  useful  in  adult  life  under  the  given  social  conditions; 
those  imposed  by  the  child  represent  what  is  necessary  to 
interest  him,  to  excite  him  to  want  to  act  and  to  know.  The 
latter  have  to  do  with  what  is  essential  to  encourage  and 
foster  his  development,  the  former  with  what  is  necessary 


2o6       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

to  control  and  direct  this  in  view  of  social  ends.  The 
determination  of  the  elementary  course  of  study  from  the 
side  of  society  does  not,  therefore,  preclude  that  from  the 
side  of  the  child,  but  its  determination  from  both  points 
of  view  is  necessary,  as  each  supplements  the  other. 

2.  Application  of  Claims  Simultaneous.  —  From  the 
supplementary  character  of  the  claims  imposed  by  society 
and  by  the  child  upon  the  curriculum  of  the  elementary 
school,  it  is  apparent  that  these  claims  cannot  be  considered 
apart  and  the  elementary  course  of  study  conditioned  with 
respect  to  the  one  and  then  with  respect  to  the  other.  It 
is  necessary  to  keep  both  in  mind  and  to  give  due  place 
and  weight  to  each  in  the  determination  of  its  every  portion. 
That  is,  both  the  needs  of  society  and  of  the  child  must  be 
considered  simultaneously  in  fixing  upon  its  every  part. 
When  thus  determined,  the  elementary  school  curriculum 
supplies  not  only  the  basis  for  interpreting  the  life  of  the 
child,  and  the  means  of  fostering  his  development,  but  also 
the  means  of  controlling  and  directing  this  in  view  of  the 
needs  of  the  community  and  of  the  nation. 

3.  Character  of  an  Elementary  School  Study.  —  From 
the  factors  entering  in  simultaneously  and  at  every  point 
to  determine,  in  the  ways  indicated,  the  elementary  cur- 
riculum, an  elementary  school  study  is,  as  suggested  above, 
different  from  the  given  subject  as  a  science.  As  a  school 
study,  a  given  branch  —  apart  from  what  it  may  compre- 
hend as  a  science  —  may  include  only  those  ideals  of  life 
and  that  knowledge  of  means  most  conducive  to  the 
appreciation  and  the  living  of  Ufe  under  given  social 
conditions,  and  furthermore,  these  ideals  of  life  and  this 
knowledge  of  means  must  be  embodied  in  such  form,  clothed 
in  such  words,  and  so  distributed  as  to  meet,  on  the  one 


CURRICULUM  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        207 

hand,  the  needs  of  the  developing  child  and  to  conserve, 

on  the  other,  the  special  ends  of  education.   >  Consequently, 

to  know  a  subject  as  a  science  docs  not  imply  that  it  is  known 

as  an  elementary  school  study,  since  to  know  it  as  such 

presupposes  that  it  is  known,  as  it  is  conditioned  at  every 

point   by    the    supplementary    factors    entering    into    the 

determination  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  as  a 

whole. 

Readings 

Dewey,  The  School  and  Society,  pp.  1-44. 

Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education,  pp.  18-26. 

The  Child  and  the  Curriculum. 
McMurry,  F.,  Report  of  N.  E.  A.,  1904,  pp.  194-202. 
Dutton,  Social  Phases  of  Education,  pp.  89-117. 
Harris,  Report  of  N.  E.  A.,  1896,  pp.  287-298. 
McMurry,  C,  Elements  of  General  Methods,  pp.  20-83. 
Depp,  Report  of  N.  E.  A.,  1904,  pp.  437-443;  also  1908,  pp.  746-751. 
Eliot,  Educational  Reform,  pp.  253-269. 
Chancellor,  Our  Schools,  pp.  275-283. 
Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching,  pp,  1-15. 
Belts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  231-290. 
Davenport,  Education  for  Efficiency,  pp.  90-120. 


CHAPTER  Vm 

METHODS    OF   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL   mSTRUCTION 

1.  Education  must  seek  to  lead  the  child  in  each  period  of  life 
to  acquire  such  experience,  to  direct  him  in  working  this  over 
into  such  knowledge,  and  to  guide  him  in  making  such  use 
of  this  as  will  give  to  the  will  and  to  the  intellect  a  development 
appropriate  to  the  period,  appropriate  to  secure  a  normal  will 
and  intellectual  development  in  the  succeeding  one,  and  appro- 
priate to  secure  the  will  and  intellectual  development  desired. 

2.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  an  essentially  new  experi- 
ence, in  directing  him  in  working  this  over  into  an  essentially 
new  concrete  idea  or  ideas,  and  in  guiding  him  in  the  use  of 
this  essentially  new  knowledge,  procedure  must  conform  to  the 
movements  and  characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the 
inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning. 

3.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  an  essentially  new  experi- 
ence or  group  of  experiences,  in  directing  him  in  working  this 
over  into  an  individual  or  essentially  new  class  concept,  and 
in  guiding  him  in  the  use  of  this  essentially  new  knowledge, 
procedure  must  conform  to  the  movements  and  characteristics 
of  thought  as  Tnanifest  in  tlie  inductive  conceptual  process  of 
learning. 

4.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  a  new  experience,  in  direct- 
ing him  in  working  this  over  into  a  new  concrete  idea  or  ideas, 
and  in  guiding  him  in  the  use  of  this  new  knowledge,  procedure 
must  conform  to  the  movements  and  characteristics  of  thought 
as  manifest  in  the  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning. 

5.  In  leading  the  child  to  acquire  a  new  experience  or  group 
of  experiences,  in  directing  him  in  working  this  over  into  a 


ELEIVIENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  209 

particular  or  new  class  concept,  and  in  guiding  him  in  tJte  use 
of  this  new  knowledge,  procedure  must  conform  to  the  movements 
and  characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  deductive 
conceptual  process  of  learning. 

§  I.  The    Problem 

The  curriculum  of  the  elementary  school  comprises  a 
definite  body  of  knowledge  which  the  child  must  make  his 
own  and  use  in  given  ways,  if  the  school  is  to  accomplish 
its  purpose.  The  acquisition  of  this  knowledge  and  the 
making  use  of  it  involves  on  the  part  of  the  child  the 
exercise  of  the  learning  processes  and  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  the  employment  of  methods  of  instruction. 
Methods  of  instruction,  in  view  of  the  above  principles,  are 
conditioned  by  the  learning  processes.  To  understand 
the  methods  of  instruction  apphcable  in  elementary  educa- 
tion, it  is  necessary  to  study  these  methods  as  determined 
by  the  learning  processes  active  during  the  elementary 
school  period. 

If  these  methods  are  designated  in  terms  of  the  particular 
conditioning  process,  they  are  the  inductive  perceptual, 
and  inductive  conceptual,  the  deductive  perceptual,  and 
deductive  conceptual  methods  of  instruction. 

§  2.  The  Inductive  Perceptual  Method  of 
Instruction  ^ 

The  inductive  perceptual  method  of  instruction  rests 

upon  the  second  of  the  above  principles  and  arises  from 

*  It  will  add  to  the  ease  with  which  this  chapter  is  understood,  if  the 
learning  processes  and  the  characteristics  and  movements  of  thought  within 
them  as  treated  in  Chapters  IV  and  V  are  reviewed  in  the  proper  connection, 
and  if  one  or  more  of  the  corresponding  illustrative  lessons  of  Chapter  IX 
are  carried  as  illustrations, 


210      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

conforming  procedure  in  teaching  to  the  movements  and 
characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  inductive 
perceptual  process  of  learning. 

I.  The  Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim.  — 
Instruction,  conforming  to  the  first  step  of  this  process, 
seeks  in  its  corresponding  step  to  bring  the  child  to  the 
consciousness  of  a  need  which  he  will  feel  constrained  to 
satisfy,  and  to  bring  him  to  appreciate  that  a  given  concrete 
difficulty  —  the  overcoming  of  which  implies  on  his  part 
the  acquisition  and  use  of  an  essentially  new  concrete  idea 
or  thought  whole  —  stands  in  the  way  and  must  be  resolved, 
if  he  would  satisfy  the  given  need.  In  short,  effort  is  made 
to  develop  a  motive  for  the  given  process  of  inductive 
perceptual  learning  and  to  fix  the  point  to  be  attained 
through  this  process. 

The  motive  for  this  may  be  developed  and  the  point 
to  be  attained  through  it  may  be  fixed  in  two  ways.  First, 
advantage  may  be  taken  of  an  instinctive  need  which  at 
the  given  time  is  demanding  satisfaction.  Through  giving 
the  child  opportunity  to  gratify  this  instinctive  need,  he 
may  be  led  to  find  out  for  himself  the  difficulty  to  be  over- 
come, and  discovering  this  for  himself,  he  appreciates  to 
the  full  the  motive  for  thought  and  its  purpose.  This 
mode  of  procedure  represents  the  highest  type  of  instruction 
and  is  the  ideal  toward  which  the  teacher  should  strive. 
The  second  mode  of  procedure  is,  however,  of  scarcely  less 
educational  importance  and  does  not  differ  fundamentally 
from  the  first.  In  pursuance  of  this  method,  the  teacher 
stimulates  the  sense  of  a  given  need  and  excites  the  desire 
to  satisfy  it.  The  child  impelled  by  this  is  then  brought 
face  to  face  with  the  tiling  to  be  constructed,  the  problem 
to  be  solved,  or  the  question  to  be  answered,  and  is  led  to 


ELEIMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  211 

see  that  he  must  accomplish  the  task  presented,  if  he  would 
gratify  his  desire. 

The  means  to  be  employed  in  this  step  of  inductive 
perceptual  instruction  are  varied,  and  may  include  the  use 
of  past  experience,  well-put  questions,  short  and  pointed 
descriptions,  the  relating  of  selected  portions  of  stories,  and 
the  use  of  pictures,  objects,  and  the  activities  of  children. 

When  a  motive  has  been  developed  and  the  purpose  of 
the  given  process  of  inductive  perceptual  learning  fixed, 
the  conditions  imposed  upon  teaching  by  the  first  thought 
movement  of  inductive  perceptual  learning  have  been 
fulfilled.  But  that  children  may  have  a  guide  in  the  sub- 
sequent steps  of  thought,  and  the  teacher  in  the  remaining 
steps  of  instruction,  it  is  of  importance  to  formulate  the 
end  to  be  attained.  It  ought  to  be  clear,  if  the  child  has 
been  made  conscious  of  a  need,  made  desirous  of  satisfying 
it,  and  brought  to  appreciate  the  concrete  difiiculty  to  be 
overcome,  that  he  will  be  able  of  himself,  as  a  rule,  to  state 
in  his  own  words  the  aim  of  the  given  process  of  learning 
or  of  the  given  lesson.  To  be  sure,  the  aim  as  stated  by  the 
child  may  at  times  be  crude  and  in  some  respects  wide  of 
the  mark,  but  a  few  well-put  questions  will  generally  sufiice 
to  bring  it  into  working  form. 

As  guides  to  the  teacher  in  directing  pupils  in  stating  the 
aim  or  in  formulating  it  for  them,  the  Herbartians  have 
suggested  certain  criteria  of  a  good  aim.  These  are  made 
applicable  by  them  to  its  formulation  at  all  times.  They 
are,  however,  when  taken  as  a  whole,  more  particularly 
appUcable  to  primary  instruction.  These  criteria  are  as 
follows:  the  aim  must  be  concrete,  that  is,  stated  with 
reference  to  a  particular  difficulty,  —  a  given  problem,  or 
story;  it  must  be  definite,  that  is,  make  clear  the  point  to 


212       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

be  solved,  the  end  to  be  attained;  and  it  must  be  brief 
and  attractive,  brevity  adding  to  deiiniteness,  and  attrac- 
tiveness increasing  interest  in  the  intellectual  task  in  hand. 

In  view  of  the  work  of  this  step,  there  is  implied,  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  in  doing  it,  a  knowledge  of  the  present 
instinctive  needs  of  the  child,  a  knowledge  of  the  means 
to  be  employed  and  of  how  to  use  them  in  the  excitation 
of  a  particular  need,  also  a  knowledge  of  the  difficulty  to 
be  overcome  and  of  the  essentially  new  concrete  idea  or 
thought- whole  that  must  be  acquired  and  used  by  the  child, 
if  he  is  to  satisfy  the  need  excited. 

2.  Step  of  Recall.  —  The  next  step  in  inductive  perceptual 
instruction  does  not  grow  out  of  a  movement  of  thought 
explicitly  manifest  in  inductive  perceptual  learning,  but 
out  of  one  impHcit  therein.  It  is  so-called  essentially  new 
experience  that  is  given  meaning  and  value  through  this 
process.  An  essentially  new  experience  includes,  as  we 
have  seen,  old  elements,  and  in  so  far  as  it  contains  these, 
it  is  worked  over  into  knowledge  through  the  deductive 
perceptual  process  of  learning  or  in  the  light  of  concrete 
ideas  previously  attained.  In  conforming  teaching  to  the 
movements  and  characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in 
inductive  perceptual  learning,  account  must  be  taken  of 
this  implied  operation  of  deductive  perceptual  thought,  and 
place  made  for  bringing  to  mind  those  concrete  ideas  in- 
volved in  giving  meaning  and  value  to  the  essentially  new 
experience  in  question  or  involved  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  picture-whole  sought.  To 
make  provision  for  and  to  do  this  is  the  work  of  the  second 
step  of  inductive  perceptual  instruction. 

The  following  suggestions  will  be  found  helpful:  Those 
concrete  ideas  or  picture-wholes  and  those  only  are  to  be 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  213 

brought  to  mind  which  will  enable  the  child  to  give 
significance,  with  economy,  to  the  given  essentially  new 
experience  or  to  attain  readily  the  essentially  new  concrete 
information  desired.  Since  the  purpose  of  this  step  is  to 
prepare  the  chUd's  mind  for  the  acquisition  of  an  essentially 
new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole,  it  follows  that  no  new 
instruction  should  be  given  in  it. 

The  particular  methods  apphcable  to  the  recall  of  the 
desired  old  concrete  ideas  vary  with  the  conditions.  This 
may  be  done  at  times  through  directed  narration  or  descrip- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  children,  at  other  times  through 
the  use  of  questions,  and  at  still  others  through  well- 
pointed  reviews. 

By  virtue  of  what  is  to  be  accomplished,  there  is  implied 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  a  knowledge  of  the  past  experi- 
ences of  the  child,  an  analysis  of  the  essentially  new  idea- 
whole  to  be  gained  with  respect  to  the  old  ideas  included 
therein,  the  fixing  in  mind  of  the  old  concrete  or  picture 
ideas  to  be  brought  to  the  child's  mind,  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  particular  means  to  be  used  and  of  how  to  employ 
them  in  doing  this. 

3,  Step  of  Presentation.  —  The  third  step  of  inductive 
perceptual  instruction  has  its  basis  in  that  movement  of 
inductive  perceptual  learning  characterized  as  the  acquisi- 
tion of  data.  In  conformity  thereto,  the  teacher  seeks  to 
bring  to  the  child  the  essentially  new  experiences  to  be 
given  meaning  and  value,  or  to  supply  him  with  the  sense 
materials  implied  in  gaining  the  essentially  new  concrete 
idea  or  ideas  sought.  Just  what  sense  impressions  are  to 
be  brought  to  the  child  is  determined,  of  course,  by  the 
difficulty  to  be  overcome,  by  the  situation  to  be  met,  by 
the  information  desired,  or  by  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the 


214       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

given  process  of  inductive  perceptual  learning  which  the 
teacher  is  seeking  to  induce  and  to  carry  to  completion 
in  the  particular  lesson. 

Various  particular  methods  of  presentation  are  employed. 
The  first  and  most  important  are  the  direct  ones  of  observa- 
tion and  of  experimentation,  that  is,  imparting  experience 
through  leading  the  child  to  observe  the  construction, 
object,  phenomenon,  invention,  product,  process,  person, 
or  event  in  question,  or  through  directing  him  in  the  per- 
formance of  given  measurements  and  operations.  These 
particular  methods  are  especially  applicable  in  elementary 
school  science,  geography,  hand-work,  and  arithmetic,  and 
ought  to  be  given  the  widest  usage.  Among  indirect 
methods  are  to  be  included  the  use  of  pictures,  models, 
maps,  globes,  and  other  representative  materials,  also 
narration,  which  may  be  employed  in  the  presentation  of 
myths,  fables,  legends,  and  stories;  likewise  description, 
to  be  used  more  especially  in  the  earliest  work  in  history 
and  geography;  and  to  these  are  to  be  added  the  book- 
method,  that  is,  the  use  of  books  by  the  pupil  as  a  means 
of  obtaining  facts. 

As  guides  in  the  use  of  both  direct  and  indirect  methods, 
the  teacher  should  settle  upon  the  sense  qualities,  aspects, 
or  characteristics  of  the  object,  construction,  or  process 
to  be  observed,  or  upon  the  measurements  to  be  performed 
and  the  data  to  be  collected,  or  he  should  determine  the 
points  to  be  made  through  narration  or  description,  or  the 
facts  to  be  gained  by  the  child  through  study.  He  should 
also  formulate  the  pivotal  questions  to  be  employed  in 
directing  study,  observation,  or  experimentation.  There 
is  implied  too,  on  his  part,  an  orderly  arrangement  of  ma- 
terials and  their  presentation  in  the  light  of  related  past 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  215 

experiences;  it  is  well  also  to  make  provision  for  frequent 
summaries  of  the  qualities  observed,  points  made,  or  of 
the  facts  presented. 

4.  Step  of  Elaboration.  —  With  the  necessary  sense 
qualities  or  data  presented  and  made  real,  instruction, 
conforming  to  the  inductive  perceptual  process  of  learning, 
seeks  to  lead  the  child  to  separate  from  the  given  qualities 
or  facts  those  of  special  importance,  seeks  to  render  his 
impressions  of  these  more  vivid,  and  to  bring  him  to  appre- 
ciate their  meaning  and  value  in  the  given  connection.  This 
may  be  done,  on  the  one  hand,  through  leading  him  to 
analyze  the  given  data,  through  directing  him  in  his  search 
for  casual  likenesses  and  differences  between  the  materials 
in  question  and  the  old  ideas  brought  to  mind,  and  through 
guiding  him  in  giving  significance  to  the  former  in  view  of 
recognized  similarity  to  the  latter;  it  may  be  done,  on  the 
other  hand,  through  leading  him  to  reflect  upon  the  sig- 
nificance of  those  elements,  the  meaning  and  value  of  which 
cannot  be  determined  in  the  fight  of  the  past  experiences 
recalled. 

In  the  selection  of  the  sense  materials,  the  meaning  and 
value  of  which  are  to  be  emphasized,  the  teacher  may  be 
guided  partially  by  what  it  is  necessary  to  select  in  order  to 
bring  the  children  to  a  mature  appreciation  of  the  given 
construction,  object,  or  process  of  nature,  or  of  the  given 
myth,  story,  picture,  or  problem;  he  must  be  guided,  how- 
ever, more  especially  by  the  particular  needs  and  interests 
of  the  child  at  the  given  time,  or  by  the  special  aim  of  the 
given  lesson.  In  bringing  out  the  meaning  and  value  of 
the  selected  matter,  in  so  far  as  this  may  be  done  most 
readily  upon  the  basis  of  the  old  concrete  ideas  brought 
to  mind,  the  child  should  be  led  to  note  those  casual  like- 


2i6      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

nesses  and  differences  most  helpful  in  the  transfer  of  the 
meaning  and  value  attached  to  the  past  experiences  recalled ; 
but  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  likenesses  and  differences 
observed  are  essential  comprises  no  part  of  inductive 
perceptual  instruction.  The  same  is  true  of  those  phases 
of  significance  brought  out  through  constructive  and 
creative  thought.  It  is  not  the  general  elements  of  meaning 
and  value  that  are  to  be  developed,  but  those  that  will 
enable  the  child  to  appreciate  in  a  concrete  way  the  given 
construction,  object,  or  story,  or  will  enable  him  to  attain 
the  desired  essentially  new  concrete  thought- whole. 

The  particular  method  of  this  step  is  that  of  the  question 
and  answer.  For  it  is  through  the  use  of  the  thought- 
provoking,  problem-setting  question  that  the  child's  atten- 
tion may  be  concentrated  upon  the  desired  quaHty  or  fact, 
that  he  may  be  led  to  make  the  desired  comparisons,  and 
to  relate  the  experience  under  consideration  to  a  similar 
past  experience;  it  is  likewise  through  the  use  of  such 
questions  that  the  problem  may  be  set,  the  solution  of  which 
brings  the  child  to  the  desired  essentially  new  phases  of 
meaning  and  value. 

Before  undertaking  the  work  of  this  step,  the  teacher 
should  fix  upon  the  elements  of  data  the  significance  of 
which  is  to  be  especially  emphasized,  and  should  formulate 
the  pivotal  questions  to  be  used  in  concentrating  attention 
upon  these  parts.  In  so  far  as  the  given  materials  may  be 
given  meaning  and  value  in  view  of  casual  similarity  to 
past  experiences  or  old  concrete  ideas,  the  teacher  should 
decide  on  the  comparisons  to  be  made  and  upon  the  pivotal 
questions  to  be  employed  in  suggesting  and  directing  these 
comparisons;  and  in  so  far  as  its  significance  must  be  devel- 
oped through  leading  the  child  to  creative  thought,  the 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  217 

teacher  should  fix  in  mind  the  aspects  of  meaning  and 
value  to  be  brought  out,  and  should  formulate  the  prob- 
lem-setting questions  to  be  used  in  initiating  and  directing 
the  necessary  processes  of  reflection  and  inductive  per- 
ceptual judgment. 

5.  Step  of  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  With  clear,  vivid 
images  of  the  more  important  sense  quahties  or  facts 
presented  in  connection  with  a  given  construction,  object, 
or  story  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  with  the 
particular  significance  of  these  determined,  instruction,  in 
conformity  to  perceptual  inductive  learning,  seeks  to  lead 
the  child  to  create  out  of  his  images  and  separate  impressions 
of  the  different  aspects  of  a  given  object,  a  concrete  idea  of 
it  in  its  entirety,  or  seeks  to  lead  him  to  fuse  his  separate 
insights  into  the  ways  of  meeting  this  and  that  part  of  a 
difficulty  into  a  comprehensive  concrete  idea  of  how  to 
meet  it  as  a  whole,  or  seeks  to  lead  him  to  forge  into  a  con- 
crete thought-whole  his  impressions  of  the  different  facts  or 
scenes  of  the  given  myth  or  story.  In  short,  what  was 
presented  as  material  of  thought  in  the  step  of  presentation, 
worked  over  in  that  of  elaboration,  is  given  further  meaning 
and  value  in  this  step,  and  the  child  attains  thereby  the 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  ideas,  the  attainment  of 
which  has  given  purpose  and  point  to  the  given  process  of 
inductive  perceptual  learning. 

The  particular  methods  to  be  employed  vary  with  the 
nature  of  the  materials  under  consideration.  Among  the 
more  important  are  to  be  included  narration,  description, 
and  explanation  on  the  part  of  the  child.  These  find  a 
wide  range  of  application  in  nature  study,  primary  number 
work,  beginning  reading,  history,  home  geography,  and 
hand-work,  for  on  the  whole  there  is  no  better  way  of 


2l8       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

bringing  the  child  to  unify  his  thoughts  than  to  require 
him  to  describe  the  construction  or  object  studied,  to 
narrate  the  myth,  fable,  or  story  presented,  or  to  explain 
how  to  meet  a  given  difficulty,  to  make  a  given  thing,  to 
solve  a  given  problem.  It  is  upon  these  methods  that 
the  teacher  must  in  the  main  depend,  though  others  may 
be  employed  with  good  effect;  such,  for  example,  as 
drawing,  moulding,  and  dramatic  representation. 

As  a  basis  of  this  work,  the  teacher  must  analyze  into 
its  constituent  elements  the  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole,  to 
which  he  is  endeavoring  to  lead  the  child,  and  make  sure 
that  the  child  brings  into  the  essentially  new  mental  whole, 
which  is  in  process  of  formation,  those  thought  elements 
necessary  to  the  acquisition  of  the  desired  insight  or  infor- 
mation. 

6.  Step  of  Verification  and  Use.  —  In  possession  of  the 
essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  ideas  desired,  there  remains, 
if  instruction  is  to  conform  to  the  final  movement  of  induc- 
tive perceptual  thought,  the  guidance  of  the  child  in  using 
the  essentially  new  insight  in  the  satisfaction  of  the  need 
initiating  the  given  process  of  perceptual  induction.  The 
inciting  need  is  often  satisfied  through  the  acquisition  of 
the  essentially  new  information,  but  when  not,  opportunity 
must  be  given  for  its  use  to  this  end ;  and  it  is  the  direction 
of  the  child  in  thus  using  his  essentially  new  knowledge 
that  constitutes  the  work  of  inductive  perceptual  instruction 
in  its  final  step. 

The  form  that  application  takes  and  the  particular 
methods  applicable  depend  upon  the  need  to  be  satisfied. 
If  the  motive  for  learning  a  myth  is  that  a  picture  may  be 
understood,  opportunity  should  be  afforded  to  employ 
the  knowledge  gained  in  its  study  and  appreciation.    If  the 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  219 

motive  for  reading  a  story  is  that  it  may  be  dramatized, 
when  mastered,  the  children  should  be  guided  in  its  repre- 
sentation. If  it  is  to  solve  a  given  problem,  in  posses- 
sion of  the  requisite  insights,  the  child  should  be  directed 
in  its  solution,  and  the  appHcation  of  the  new  knowledge 
may  be  broadened  to  apply  to  other  similar  problems.  If 
it  is  that  a  given  thing  may  be  done  or  a  given  thing  made, 
with  the  necessary  knowledge  of  ends  and  means  in  hand, 
opportunity  should  be  given  for  doing  or  making  the  given 
thing.  As  suggested,  the  child  is  not  left  to  himself  in  this 
step,  but  sufficient  guidance  is  given,  mainly  through  the 
use  of  the  directive,  problem-setting  question,  to  enable 
him  to  use  in  the  best  way  the  information  acquired.  It  is 
in  thus  directing  the  child  in  the  application  of  knowledge 
that  thought  arising  from  need  finds  its  completion  in  the 
satisfaction  of  need,  or  arising  because  of  the  necessity  of 
action  fulfills  its  function  in  supplying  the  basis  of  action. 

§  3.  The  Inductive  Conceptual  Method  of 
Instruction 

The  inductive  conceptual  method  of  instruction  rests 
upon  the  third  of  the  above  principles  and  arises  from 
conforming  procedure  in  teaching  to  the  movements  and 
characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  inductive 
conceptual  process  of  learning. 

I .  Step  of  Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim.  — 
Instruction  that  confoiTns  to  the  inductive  conceptual 
mode  of  learning  seeks,  first,  to  stimulate  a  need,  which  in 
turn  will  give  rise  to  a  motive  for  carrying  through  such  a 
learning  process.  The  motive  for  this  arises  when  the 
child  finds  that,  to  satisfy  a  given  desire,  he  must  resolve 
an  opposing  difficulty  which  can  be  overcome  only  through 


220      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  acquisition  and  application  of  an  essentially  new  general 
idea.  For  it  is  this  discovery  that  reveals  the  necessity  and 
purpose  of  thought.  The  excitation  of  such  a  need,  the 
bringing  of  the  child  face  to  face  with  such  a  difficulty,  and 
the  fixing  of  the  point  of  a  given  process  of  inductive  con- 
ceptual learning  is  therefore  the  work  of  the  first  step  of 
conceptual  instruction. 

The  particular  methods  applicable  are  similar  to  those 
to  be  used  in  the  corresponding  step  of  inductive  perceptual 
instruction.  Advantage  may  be  taken  of  a  need  in  the 
consciousness  of  the  child  or  a  need  may  be  excited,  and 
through  giving  him  opportunity  to  satisfy  it,  he  may  find 
for  himself  or  be  led  to  discover  the  difficulty  to  be  overcome 
or  the  situation  to  be  met. 

The  means  that  may  be  employed  include  the  use  of 
past  experience,  the  discussion  of  certain  conditions  of  fife 
and  of  how  they  are  met,  the  setting  of  a  problem  of  how 
given  things  are  made,  or  the  putting  of  questions  with 
respect  to  the  reason  or  cause  of  this  or  that. 

As  in  inductive  perceptual  instruction,  it  is  important, 
both  for  the  sake  of  the  pupil  and  the  teacher,  to  formulate 
the  object  of  the  given  process  of  inductive  conceptual 
learning  on  the  part  of  the  child  and  of  the  given  instruction 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  In  many  cases  the  pupil  will, 
at  least  with  a  minimum  amount  of  guidance,  be  able  to 
formulate  the  aim  for  himself,  yet  it  is  necessary  at  times 
to  do  this  for  him. 

The  guides  suggested  in  connection  with  the  step  of 
inductive  perceptual  instruction  are  applicable  here.  There 
is,  however,  one  exception.  An  essential  characteristic 
of  the  aim,  as  there  given,  was,  that  it  be  concrete;  con- 
creteness  is  no  longer  an  essential  feature.     In  an  inductive 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  221 

conceptual  lesson,  the  aim  may  be  abstract  and  it  is  often 
preferable  so  to  put  it. 

In  view  of  what  is  to  be  accomplished,  there  is  implied 
with  respect  to  the  teacher  a  knowledge  of  the  needs  of 
the  child  at  the  given  time,  also  insight  into  the  means  to 
be  employed  and  how  to  use  them  in  the  excitation  of  a 
particular  desire;  there  is  implied  also  a  knowledge  of  the 
mental  or  physical  obstacle  standing  in  the  way,  and  of 
the  essentially  new  general  idea  that  must  be  acquired  and 
used  in  resolving  the  opposing  difficulty,  if  tlie  given  need 
is  to  be  gratified. 

2.  Step  of  Recall.  —  It  is  an  essentially  new  experience 
or  group  of  experiences  that  is  worked  over  into  knowledge 
through  the  inductive  conceptual  process  of  learning.  Such 
an  experience  or  group  of  experiences  contains,  as  we  have 
seen,  elements  that  have  previously  been  given  general 
significance,  and  in  so  far  as  an  essentially  new  experience 
or  group  of  experiences  contains  old  and  familiar  elements, 
it  is  given  general  meaning  and  value  in  view  of  old  elements 
or  through  the  corresponding  deductive  process.  That 
instruction  may  conform  to  inductive  conceptual  learning, 
provision  must  be  made  for  this  impHcit  operation  therein 
of  deductive  conceptual  learning,  and  it  is  the  necessity  of 
making  such  provision  that  gives  rise  to  the  second  step  in 
inductive  conceptual  instruction. 

Such  provision  can  be  made  through  providing  for  the 
recall  of  experiences  previously  given  general  meaning  and 
value,  or  for  the  recall  of  old  general  ideas.  The  general 
ideas  to  be  brought  to  mind  will  depend  in  each  case  on 
those  involved  in  the  ready  acquisition  of  the  individual 
concept  or  the  essentially  new  class  concept  sought.  Since 
the  object  of  this  step  is  to  provide  for  the  use  of  old 


222       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

general  ideas  or  for  the  implicit  operation  in  this  process 
of  learning  of  the  corresponding  deductive  process,  it  fol- 
lows that  no  new  instruction  should  be  given  in  it. 

The  particular  method  to  be  employed  varies  with  the 
problem  to  be  solved  or  the  question  to  be  answered. 
Although  conversation,  narration,  and  description  may  at 
times  be  used  to  good  advantage,  the  desired  old  general 
ideas  may  be  recalled  best,  on  the  whole,  through  well- 
directed  book  reviews  and  the  use  of  well-pointed  questions. 

In  view  of  the  work  in  hand,  there  is  impHed,  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  a  knowledge  of  the  past  experiences  of  the 
child  and  of  what  old  general  ideas  are  included  in  the 
essentially  new  concept  to  be  attained;  and  there  is  implied 
in  addition  the  fixing  upon  which  of  these  ideas  shall  be 
brought  to  mind  and  upon  the  means  to  be  used  in  doing  it. 

3.  Step  of  Presentation.  —  In  conformity  with  inductive 
conceptual  learning,  instruction,  in  its  next  step,  seeks  to 
guide  the  child  in  the  acquisition  of  the  requisite  experience, 
or  seeks  to  present  to  him  the  sense  materials  impUed  in 
the  attainment  of  the  desired  individual  or  essentially  new 
class  concept.  The  data  to  be  presented  here  differ  radi- 
cally from  those  to  be  suppHed  in  inductive  perceptual 
instruction.  The  difference  is  brought  to  view,  if  the  same 
object  is  made  the  subject  of  an  inductive  perceptual  and  of 
an  inductive  conceptual  lesson.  If  the  subject  of  a  lesson 
of  the  former  kind  is  Niagara  Falls,  adequate  sense  materials 
are  presented  to  give  the  child  a  concrete  idea-whole  of  it. 
If  Niagara  is  made  the  subject  of  one  of  the  latter  type  and 
the  aim  of  the  given  lesson  is  to  develop  an  individual 
concept,  then  the  data  suppHed  must  not  only  be  such  as 
to  afford  the  means  of  obtaining  a  concrete  idea  of  Niagara, 
but  also  such  as  will  serve  as  the  basis  of  attaining  the 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  223 

desired  insight  into  its  distinctive  features.  It  is  these 
latter  elements  that  are  rightly  ignored  in  inductive  per- 
ceptual instruction,  and  though  the  sense  materials  pre- 
sented therein  are  often  sufficient  to  supply  the  means  of 
gaining  an  individual  concept,  to  use  them  to  this  end 
forms  no  part  of  inductive  perceptual  instruction.  The 
difference  is  still  further  emphasized,  if  the  object  of  a  given 
inductive  conceptual  lesson  is  to  develop  an  essentially 
new  class  concept.  In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  supply 
data  not  only  with  reference  to  one  waterfall,  for  example, 
Niagara,  but  with  reference  to  several,  and  there  is  need 
of  presenting  sufficient  sense  materials  with  respect  to  each 
to  afford  the  basis  not  only  of  acquiring  a  concrete  idea 
thereof,  but  also  of  gaining  insight  into  the  common  and 
essential  characteristics  of  waterfalls  as  a  class. 

The  particular  methods  to  be  employed  in  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  selected  data  and  in  making  these  real  vary  with 
the  sense  materials  in  question.  When  possible,  they  should 
be  presented  through  the  direct  means  of  observation  and 
experimentation;  where  this  is  impossible,  use  should  be 
made  of  pictures,  models,  maps,  etc.  There  is  wide  range 
here  also  for  the  employment  of  books  when  the  facts  are 
not  otherwise  accessible,  as  well  as  for  the  use  of  narration 
and  description  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  guides:  Those  sense 
materials  and  only  those  should  be  brought  to  the  child 
that  are  essential  to  the  attainment  of  the  desired  individual 
or  essentially  new  class  concept.  Preparatory  to  this,  the 
teacher  should  fix  upon  the  data  to  be  supplied  in  the  given 
lesson  and  should  decide  upon  the  particular  methods  to 
be  employed.  The  facts  should  be  so  ordered  as  to  facilitate 
their  acquisition,  presented  in  the  light  of  past  experience 


224      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

or  old  general  ideas  recalled,  and  in  a  manner  to  result  in 
clear,  distinct,  and  vivid  images;  provision  should  also 
be  made  for  frequent  summaries. 

I  4.  Step  of  Elaboration.  —  With  the  necessary  sense  ma- 
terials in  hand,  instruction,  in  conformity  to  conceptual 
induction,  seeks  to  lead  the  child  to  work  these  over  with  a 
view  to  bringing  out  certain  general  aspects  of  meaning  and 
value.  To  illustrate,  if  the  purpose  of  an  inductive  con- 
ceptual lesson  is  to  develop  an  individual  concept  of  Niagara 
Falls,  instruction,  in  this  step,  guides  the  child  in  analyzing 
the  data  presented  into  their  component  parts,  in  compar- 
ing the  elements  discovered  with  similar  ones  found  in 
other  waterfalls  or  in  connection  with  the  experiences 
recalled,  and  leads  him  to  reflect  and  to  pass  judgment 
upon  what  Niagara  is  with  a  given  element  and  what  it 
would  be  without  that  element.  In  this  way  the  child 
comes  to  appreciate  one  by  one  the  distinct  and  charac- 
teristic aspects  of  Niagara  and  to  apprehend  their  respective 
significance.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  object  of  the  lesson 
is  to  develop  an  essentially  new  class  concept,  the  teacher 
guides  the  child  in  analyzing  the  data  presented  with  refer- 
ence to  each  waterfall  and  leads  him,  through  comparison, 
creative  thought,  and  inductive  conceptual  judgment  to 
an  appreciation  of  the  common  and  essential  elements 
thereof  and  of  their  respective  general  meaning  and  value 
in  the  cases  under  consideration. 

The  difference  between  the  work  of  this  step  in  inductive 
perceptual  and  in  inductive  conceptual  instruction  is  readily 
apparent.  In  the  former,  the  teacher  seeks  to  bring  the 
child  to  a  clear,  distinct,  and  vivid  image,  and  to  a  simple, 
concrete  appreciation  of  each  of  the  more  important  factors 
in  the  materials  presented  in  connection  with  the  con- 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  225 

stniction,  object,  problem,  myth,  poem,  or  event  in 
question.  In  the  latter,  he  seeks  to  bring  him  to  an 
understanding  of  the  several  distinctive  aspects  of  a  given 
particular  and  of  their  respective  significance,  or  to  a 
comprehension  of  this  and  that  element  as  common  and 
essential  in  given  typical  indi\'iduals. 

There  is  but  one  method  on  the  whole  applicable  here  — 
that  of  the  question  and  answer;  it  is  upon  directive, 
problem-setting  questions  that  the  teacher  must  rely  in 
leading  the  child  to  make  the  desired  analyses  and  com- 
parisons, to  do  the  desired  reflective  thinking,  and  to  pass 
the  desired  inductive  conceptual  judgments. 

In  doing  the  work  of  this  step,  there  is  implied,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  the  teacher  decide  upon  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  particular  of  which  an  individual  concept 
is  to  be  given,  or  upon  the  common  and  essential  elements 
of  the  typical  individuals  of  which  an  essentially  new 
class  concept  is  sought;  and  there  is  implied,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  he  formulate  the  larger,  directive,  problem- 
setting  questions  to  be  used  in  leading  the  child  to  make 
the  analyses  and  comparisons  and  to  do  the  reflective 
thinking  involved  in  the  appreciation  of  this  or  that  aspect 
of  a  given  individual  as  distinctive,  or  in  the  comprehension 
of  this  or  that  element  as  common  and  essential  in  the  par- 
ticular cases  in  hand. 

5.  Step  of  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  With  the  sense 
materials  presented  and  elaborated,  instruction,  in  con- 
formity with  the  inductive  conceptual  learning,  endeavors, 
where  an  individual  concept  is  sought,  to  lead  the  child 
to  fuse  his  separate  ideas  of  the  distinctive  aspects  of  the 
individual  in  question  into  a  comprehensive  and  vivid 
thought-whole  and  upon  the  basis  thereof  to  draw  appro- 


226      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

priate  inferences  with  respect  to  the  given  particular;  this 
is  true  whether  the  individual  concept  desired  is  of  a 
construction,  of  an  event  in  history,  or  of  a  selection  in 
literature.  In  case  of  an  essentially  new  class  notion, 
the  teacher  leads  the  child  to  draw  his  several  ideas  of  the 
different  common  and  essential  characteristics  found  in  a 
group  of  individuals  into  an  idea-whole,  and  through 
generaUzation  on  the  basis  thereof  to  gain  a  conception 
of  the  class;  this  should  be  done  whether  the  general 
idea  sought  is  of  phenomena  of  nature,  facts  of  geography, 
or  problems  in  arithmetic.  The  work  of  this  step  does 
not  consist,  however,  in  guiding  the  child  in  putting 
together,  as  one  might  gather  together  a  number  of  scat- 
tered bricks,  the  insights  and  appreciations  acquired,  but 
consists  more  especially  in  leading  him  to  create  out  of 
these  an  essentially  new  general  idea. 

In  stimulating  the  child  to  the  constructive  and  creative 
thought  impHed  in  synthesis  and  inference,  the  chief 
means  to  be  used  is  again  the  directive,  problem-setting 
question.  Summarizing,  explanation,  narration,  and  de- 
scription on  the  part  of  the  child  find  also  a  wide  range 
of  application. 

To  do  the  work  of  this  step,  the  teacher  must  have  in 
mind  the  thought  elements  to  be  fused  and  the  infer- 
ences to  be  drawn;  he  must  know,  too,  the  particular 
methods  to  be  used  and  how  to  employ  them  in  guiding  the 
child  to  the  desired  phases  of  general  meaning  and  value, 
to  their  S3mthesis  into  the  desired  concept,  and  to  the 
desired  conclusions;  finally,  it  is  weU  to  let  the  child  first 
state  the  new  generahzation  in  his  own  words,  even  though 
this  may  need  correction  and  it  may  be  advisable  later  to 
give  him  a  textbook  or  classic  statement  for  the  same. 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  227 

6.  Step  of  Verification  and  Use.  —  With  the  child  in 
possession  of  the  new  individual  or  essentially  new  class 
concept,  instruction,  conforming  to  inductive  conceptual 
learning,  gives  opportunity  —  when  the  process  does  not 
culminate  with  the  attainment  of  the  essentially  new 
conception  —  to  use  this  in  the  satisfaction  of  the  initi- 
ating need,  and  it  is  making  place  for  this  tliat  is  distinctive 
of  the  final  step  of  inductive  conceptual  instruction. 

The  work  here,  however,  is  broader  than  merely  giving 
the  pupil  opportunity  to  use  the  given  general  idea  to 
'gratify  the  need  that  yields  the  motive  for  the  acquisition 
of  the  given  idea;  it  includes,  in  addition,  whether  the 
essentially  new  general  idea  gained  be  a  law  of  physics, 
a  rule  in  arithmetic,  a  principle,  or  an  ideal  of  action, 
the  bringing  of  the  child  to  an  appreciation  of  the  various 
realms  to  which  the  given  general  idea  is  applicable,  and 
especially  to  an  appreciation  of  how  to  apply  it  to  the 
ordinary  and  actual  problems  and  conditions  of  present- 
day  Hfe. 

Though  the  means  to  be  used  is,  as  a  rule,  the  direct- 
ive question,  the  form  that  application  assumes  and  the 
particular  methods  to  be  employed  vary  with  the  general 
idea  and  with  the  need  to  be  satisfied.  If,  for  example, 
the  motive  for  learning  a  principle  of  physics  is  that  a 
given  thing  may  be  constructed,  application  consists  in 
directing  the  child  in  the  use  of  the  principle  to  that  end, 
or  if  the  motive  for  mastering  a  given  rule  is  to  solve  a 
class  of  problems,  the  child  should  be  guided  in  appl}-ii-ig 
the  rule  to  their  solution,  or  if  the  motive  for  obtaining 
an  essentially  new  conception  is  that  certain  phenomena, 
facts,  or  events  may  be  understood,  application  consists 
in  helping  him  to  explain  them  in  the  light  of  it.    It  is  in 


228      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

thus  directing  the  child  in  the  use  of  the  essentially  new 
general  ideas  acquired  that  the  circuit  of  inductive  con- 
ceptual thought  is  completed  and  knowledge  made  to 
serve  its  fimction  in  life. 

Preparatory  to  this  work,  the  teacher  should  fix  upon  the 
particular  methods  and  means  to  be  employed  in  aiding 
the  child  in  overcoming  the  difficulty,  in  meeting  the 
situation,  in  solving  the  problem,  that  called  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  given  general  idea;  he  should  also  decide  upon 
the  other  ways  in  which  it  is  desirable,  at  the  time,  to  make 
application  of  the  given  general  idea  and  upon  the  means 
to  be  used.  As  a  guiding  thought  for  the  step  as  a  whole, 
the  child  should  be  led  to  apply  his  knowledge  in  such 
ways  as  will  be  most  helpful  in  every-day  life. 

§  4.  The  Deductive  Perceptual  Method  of 
Instruction 

The  deductive  perceptual  method  of  instruction  rests 
upon  the  fourth  of  the  above  principles  and  arises  from 
conforming  procedure  in  teaching  to  the  movements  and 
characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  deductive 
perceptual  process  of  learning. 

I .  Step  of  Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim.  — 
In  conformity  to  this  learning  process,  instruction  first 
seeks  to  excite  a  need  which  may  be  most  readily  satisfied 
through  the  application  of  a  previously  acquired  concrete 
idea  or  idea  whole;  it  seeks  also,  through  bringing  the 
child  face  to  face  with  the  opposing  mental  or  physical 
difficulty,  to  stimulate  a  motive  for  and  to  make  clear  the 
object  of  the  process  of  deductive  perceptual  learning 
involved  in  resolving  the  given  obstacle  and  in  gratifying 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  229 

the  given  inciting  need.  The  doing  of  tliis  characterizes 
the  first  step  of  deductive  perceptual  instruction.^ 

2.  Step  of  Presentation.  —  The  appreciation  of  a  diffi- 
culty or  problem  implies  some  little  knowledge  of  the 
situation  or  condition  out  of  which  it  arises.  It  does  not, 
however,  presuppose  insight  sufficient  to  enable  one  to 
overcome  or  resolve  the  obstacle,  even  though  this  may- 
be done  in  view  of  concrete  ideas  previously  acquired. 
The  doing  of  this  necessitates  the  collection  of  additional 
sense  materials,  and  their  acquisition  marks  a  distinct 
movement  in  deductive  perceptual  thought.  In  conformity 
thereto,  deductive  perceptual  instruction  endeavors,  in  its 
second  step,  to  supply,  or  to  lead  the  child  to  acquire  by 
himself,  the  data  requisite  to  the  accomplishment  of  the 
mental  task  in  hand,  and  to  make  his  impressions  of  the 
data  acquired  or  presented  real  and  Ufe-hkc. 

The  materials  to  be  presented  in  the  two  methods  of 
perceptual  instruction  are  somewhat  different.  In  the 
inductive,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  such  data  as  will 
enable  the  child  to  attain  an  essentially  new  concrete  idea 
or  thought- whole;  in  the  deductive,  there  is  only  need 
of  presenting  such  sense  materials  as  wiU  enable  him  to 
recognize  readily  the  similarity  or  difference  between  the 
given  situation,  object,  or  construction  and  one  previously 
met,  determined,  or  constructed,  or  will  enable  him  to 

^  As  a  rule,  the  methods  and  guides  suggested  in  our  consideration  of 
inductive  instruction  are,  with  slight  modification,  applicable  to  the  corre- 
sponding step  and  method  of  deductive  instruction.  For  this  reason,  these 
will  not  be  repealed.  It  will,  however,  be  found  of  profit,  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  each  step  of  deductive  perceptual  and  conceptual  instruc- 
tion, to  have  the  student  review  the  methods  and  guides  for  the  same  step 
of  the  corresponding  method  of  inductive  instruction,  and  t<i  consitlcr  what 
changes  are  necessary  to  make  these  applicable  to  the  step  in  question. 


230      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

recognize  the  similarity  or  difference  between  the  given 
experience  and  one  previously  worked  over  into  a  concrete 
idea. 

3.  Step  of  Recall.  —  The  sense  materials  presented  do 
not  of  themselves  reveal  their  meaning  and  value  or  always 
suggest  the  experience  or  old  concrete  ideas  upon  the 
basis  of  which  this  may  be  most  readily  determined. 
Hence  the  teacher  seeks  to  lead  the  child  to  recall  those 
concrete  ideas  which  will  be  most  helpful  to  him  in  acquir- 
ing the  desired  concrete  insight.  As  a  rule,  it  is  sufi&cient 
to  bring  to  the  child's  mind  the  concrete  idea  or  ideas 
gained  in  giving  meaning  and  value  to  a  single  experience, 
and  there  is  seldom  need,  as  is  often  the  case  in  this  step 
of  inductive  perceptual  instruction,  to  recall  various 
experiences  or  parts  of  different  ones. 

4.  Step  of  Elaboration.  —  With  the  necessary  data 
presented  and  the  helpful  concrete  ideas  recalled,  instruc- 
tion, in  conformity  to  the  deductive  perceptual  process 
of  learning,  leads  the  child  to  analyze  into  their  elements, 
on  the  one  hand,  the  sense  materials  in  question  and,  on 
the  other,  the  past  experience  or  concrete  ideas  brought 
to  mind;  directs  him  in  comparing,  in  order  to  find 
casual  likenesses  and  differences,  the  elements  found  in 
the  one  with  those  included  within  the  other;  brings 
him,  through  creative  thought  and  deductive  perceptual 
judgment,  to  a  distinct  and  vivid  appreciation  of  the 
respective  casual  likenesses  and  differences  existing  between 
the  two  experiences,  and  leads  him  in  view  of  differences 
to  withhold  and  in  view  of  likenesses  to  transfer  concrete 
meaning  and  value  to  particular  elements  of  the  experi- 
ence in  question.  Though  the  work  of  this  step  is  similar 
to  that  in  the  corresponding   one   of   inductive   instruc- 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  231 

tion,  there  is  lacking,  to  a  large  extent,  as  will  be  noted, 
the  constructive  feature  characteristic,  at  this  point,  of 
the  latter. 

5.  Step  of  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  With  separate  and 
vivid  ideas  of  the  different  elements  of  the  data  under 
consideration,  and  with  their  respective  significance  or 
lack  of  significance  clearly  in  mind,  the  teacher,  in  con- 
formity to  the  deductive  perceptual  process  of  learning, 
leads  the  cliild  to  fuse  the  separate  impressions  into  an 
idea-whole,  and  on  the  basis  thereof  to  draw  inferences 
or  conclusions.  He  leads  him,  for  example,  to  infer,  in 
view  of  the  new  concrete  insight  gained,  that  the  given 
problem  may  or  may  not  be  solved  in  a  given  way,  or  to 
infer  how  the  given  construction  may  be  or  was  made,  or 
to  ascribe  to  the  objects  in  question  certain  quaHties 
having  a  given  significance. 

The  outcome  of  this  step  in  each  of  the  two  methods  of 
perceptual  instruction  wiU  be  different.  In  the  inductive, 
an  essentially  new  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole  is  brought 
to  the  child.  In  the  deductive,  though  the  child  gains  a 
new  concrete  idea,  the  new  idea  is  very  similar  to  concrete 
ideas  previously  acquired.  In  the  one  case,  a  distinct 
contribution  is  made  to  the  child's  insights,  in  the  other, 
old  knowledge  is  shghtly  expanded  and  given  a  new  form. 

6.  Step  of  Verification  and  Use.  —  With  the  attainment 
of  the  desired  insight,  or  new  concrete  ideas,  the  need  yield- 
ing the  motive  for  carrying  on  the  given  process  of  per- 
ceptual deduction  is  often  satisfied.  There  more  generally 
remains,  however,  the  overcoming  of  the  physical  or  mental 
obstacle  standing  in  the  way  of  the  gratification  of  the 
inciting  need.  To  give  the  child  opportunity  for  this  antl 
to  direct  him  in  it  is  to  bring  instruction  into  conformity 


232      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

with  the  final  thought  movement  of  deductive  perceptual 
learning,  and  it  is  the  doing  of  this  that  is  distinctive  of 
the  final  step  and  work  of  deductive  perceptual  instruction. 

§  5.  The  Deductive  Conceptual  Method  of 
Instruction 

The  deductive  conceptual  method  of  instruction  rests 
upon  the  fifth  of  the  above  principles  and  arises  from 
conforming  procedure  in  teaching  to  the  movements  and 
characteristics  of  thought  as  manifest  in  the  deductive 
conceptual  process  of  learning, 

I,  The  Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim. — 
Instruction,  in  conformity  to  this  process,  seeks  in  its  first 
step  to  excite  a  need  which  the  child  will  feel  constrained 
to  satisfy  and  to  bring  him  face  to  face  with  an  opposing 
difficulty  which  may  be  resolved  through  the  use  of  a 
general  idea  or  general  ideas  previously  acquired.  The 
excitation  of  such  a  need  gives  rise  to  the  desire  to  satisfy 
it,  and  the  appreciation  that  this  involves  overcoming  the 
given  difficulty  yields  the  motive  for  carrying  through  the 
implied  process  of  deductive  conceptual  learning  and  fixes 
its  point  and  purpose. 

It  is  well  to  note,  in  this  connection,  that  the  aim  of  a 
deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning  on  the  part  of 
the  child  and  of  the  corresponding  process  of  instruction 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  may  be  stated  in  particular 
and  concrete,  or  in  general  and  abstract  terms,  according 
as  there  is  need  of  acquiring  or  developing  a  particular 
or  a  new  class  concept.  If  the  problem  at  issue  or  the 
aim  of  the  lesson  has  to  do,  for  example,  with  the  agri- 
cultural conditions  of  eastern  North  Dakota,  it  may  be 
stated  concretely:    Is  eastern  North  Dakota  suited  to 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  233 

farming?  The  question  may  then  be  answered  through 
the  attainment  of  a  particular  concept.  If,  however,  the 
problem  or  aim  of  the  lesson  has  to  do  with  the  general 
characteristics  of,  say,  the  substantive  clause,  it  must  be 
stated  in  general  terms:  What  is  a  substantive  clause 
and  what  are  its  uses?  The  answer  implies  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  new  class  concept. 

2.  Step  of  Presentation.  —  With  the  motive  developed 
and  the  object  of  the  learning  process  determined,  deductive 
conceptual  instruction,  in  its  next  step,  suppKes  or  directs 
the  child  in  obtaining  the  data  or  the  facts  with  reference 
to  the  problem  in  question  necessary  to  its  solution.  The 
materials  of  knowledge  to  be  acquired  or  presented  will 
vary  according  as  a  particular  or  new  class  concept  is  sought. 
In  case  of  the  former,  there  is  need  only  of  presenting  data 
with  reference  to  a  given  particular;  the  data  presented 
must,  however,  be  of  such  a  character  as  not  only  to  enable 
the  child  to  gain  a  concrete  idea-whole  of  the  given  par- 
ticular, but  also  such  as  will  enable  him  to  appreciate  the 
presence  therein  of  certain  familiar  elements  of  general 
meaning  and  value.  If,  however,  there  is  need  of  acquiring 
a  new  class  concept,  data  must  be  presented  with  reference 
to  a  number  of  similar  particulars,  and  these  must  be  of  a 
type  to  enable  the  child  to  come  to  the  appreciation  of 
certain  known  elements  of  general  meaning  and  value  as 
common  to  the  group  in  review. 

The  materials  to  be  brought  to  the  child  in  this  step  of 
deductive  conceptual  instruction  are  similar  to  those  to 
be  presented  in  the  corresponding  step  and  process  of 
inductive  instruction.  There  is,  however,  this  difTerence: 
In  inductive  conceptual  instruction,  the  facts  presented 
with  reference  to  a  given  particular  or  with  reference  to 


234      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

a  group  must  be  of  a  kind  to  enable  the  child  to  learn  for 
the  first  time  that  certain  elements  are  distinctive  of  a 
given  particular,  or  are  common  and  essential  to  a  class. 
In  deductive  conceptual  instruction,  the  materials  to  be 
presented  need  only  to  be  such  as  to  enable  the  child  to 
discover  in  the  object,  situation,  or  problem  at  issue,  cer- 
tain elements  of  general  meaning  and  value  with  which  he 
is  familiar,  or  such  as  to  enable  him  to  note  that  certain 
known  elements  of  general  meaning  and  value  are  common 
to  the  group  in  question.  In  the  one  case  provision  must 
be  made  for  learning  from  the  ground  up,  in  the  other,  for 
learning  in  view  of  general  ideas  previously  acquired. 

3.  Step  of  Recall.  —  With  the  necessary  facts  in  hand, 
deductive  conceptual  instruction  seeks  to  supply  the  basis 
for  giving  these  general  meaning  and  value  in  the  most 
economical  way.  The  basis  of  this  is  not,  as  in  deductive 
perceptual  instruction,  a  concrete  idea  or  idea-whole,  but 
general  ideas,  and  the  general  idea  or  ideas  to  be  brought 
to  mind  are,  as  a  rule,  not  particular  or  individual  concepts, 
but  class  concepts. 

4.  Step  oj  Elaboration.  —  Although  the  child  may  have 
gathered  data  with  reference  to  a  given  problem,  object, 
or  situation,  or  with  reference  to  a  group  of  similar  par- 
ticulars, and  his  impressions  of  these  may  be  vivid,  and 
although  he  may  have  recalled  a  given  concept  or  a  number 
of  general  ideas,  the  full  significance  of  the  respective 
materials  remains  relatively  unknown  to  him.  That  the 
child  may  attain  with  ease  the  insights  implied  in  the 
accomplishment  of  the  task  in  hand,  instruction,  in  con- 
formity with  the  deductive  conceptual  process  of  learning, 
guides  him,  on  the  one  hand,  in  analyzing  the  data  acquired 
with  reference  to  the  given  particular  or  with  reference  to 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  235 

the  given  group,  —  not,  however,  merely  for  the  sake  of 
making  clear  and  distinct  the  images  of  the  different  con- 
stituent factors,  but  more  especially  that  the  general 
elements  embodied  in  the  given  particular  or  common  to 
the  given  group  may  be  discovered,  —  and  it  guides  him, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  analyzing  into  its  component  parts 
the  general  idea  or  ideas  brought  to  mind.  It  also  leads 
him,  in  case  a  particular  concept  is  desired,  to  compare 
the  elements  found  in  the  given  particular  with  those 
included  in  a  given  concept,  brings  him  through  creative 
thought  and  deductive  conceptual  judgment  to  appreciate 
the  essential  Ukenesses  or  differences  between  the  elements 
finding  expression  in  the  particular  in  question  and  those 
comprised  in  the  concept  recalled,  and  leads  him  to  with- 
hold in  view  of  differences  or  transfer  in  view  of  similarity 
general  meaning  and  value  to  particular  elements  of  the 
experience  under  consideration.  Similarly,  in  case  a  new 
class  concept  is  sought,  the  teacher  guides  him  through  the 
same  thought  processes  to  discover  the  essential  similari- 
ties or  differences  between  the  elements  common  to  the 
group  of  particulars  in  review  and  the  elements  included 
within  a  given  general  idea  or  ideas,  and  leads  him  to 
withhold  or  to  transfer  general  meaning  and  value  to  given 
elements  in  view  of  essential  likenesses  or  differences. 

Though  the  work  in  this  step  is  much  hke  that  in  the 
corresponding  step  and  process  of  inductive  instruction, 
there  is  this  difference:  In  the  latter  process,  the  child 
is  being  led  to  appreciate  for  the  first  time  that  certain 
features  are  distinctive  of  a  given  particular,  or  that 
certain  elements  are  common  and  essential  to  a  given 
group,  whereas  in  the  former,  the  child  is  merely  being  led 
to  observe  the  presence  or  absence  of  certain  well-known 


236      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

general  elements  in  a  given  object,  situation,  or  problem, 
or  in  a  given  group  or  class  of  phenomena,  and  to  a  conse- 
quent withholding  or  transfer  of  general  significance. 
There  is  therefore  lacking  in  this  step  of  deductive  concep- 
tual instruction  that  creative  element  distinctive  of  the 
corresponding  step  and  process  of  inductive  instruction. 

5.  Step  oj  Synthesis  and  Inference.  —  With  the  more 
important  elements  in  the  facts  presented  with  reference 
to  a  particular  or  group  of  similar  particulars  made  dis- 
tinct, and  with  the  general  significance  of  these  elements 
or  the  lack  of  it  made  clear,  the  child  is  directed  —  in  case 
the  essential  similarities  or  differences  between  a  given 
particular  and  a  given  general  idea  have  been  brought 
to  view  —  in  bringing  together  into  a  particular  concept 
the  general  insights  gained,  and  in  drawing  appropriate 
inferences  with  reference  to  the  particular  in  question. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  essential  similarities  or  differ- 
ences between  the  common  elements  of  a  group  of  phenom- 
ena and  the  elements  comprised  in  the  given  general  idea 
or  ideas  have  been  made  clear,  the  child  is  led  to  fuse 
into  a  new  class  concept  the  different  insights  into  general 
meaning  and  value  thus  acquired,  and  upon  the  basis 
of  this  new  class  concept  is  guided  in  drawing  inferences 
with  reference  to  the  objects,  processes,  or  problems  in 
review. 

The  contrast  at  this  point  between  the  two  modes  of 
conceptual  instruction  is  marked.  In  inductive  conceptual 
instruction  the  child  is  brought  in  this  step  to  an  idea  of 
the  distinctive  qualities  of  a  given  particular,  or  to  an 
idea  of  the  common  and  essential  qualities  of  a  class, 
whereas  in  the  corresponding  step  of  deductive  conceptual 
instruction  he  gains  a  particular  concept  which  enables 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  237 

him  to  appreciate  the  embodiment  in  a  given  particular  of 
certain  known  gener^.l  elements,  or  he  gains  a  new  class 
concept  which  enables  him  to  miderstand  how  the  general 
idea  or  ideas  previously  acquired  may  be  applied  with  slight 
modification  to  a  new  group  of  particulars.  In  the  one 
case,  he  acquires  essentially  new  insights;  in  the  other,  old 
knowledge  receives  modification  and  expansion. 

6.  Step  of  Verification  and  Use.  —  Deductive  conceptual 
instruction  may  culminate  with  the  information  gained 
through  synthesis  and  inference,  but  as  a  rule  place  must 
be  made  for  overcoming  the  mental  or  physical  difficulty 
which  stands  in  the  way  of  satisfying  the  need  that  gave  rise 
to  the  particular  process  of  deductive  conceptual  learning. 
Giving  opportunity  to  apply  the  knowledge  gained  to  this 
end  characterizes  the  final  step  of  this  method  of  instruction. 

The  work  of  this  step  does  not,  however,  consist  alone 
in  guiding  the  child  in  solving  the  problem,  meeting  the 
situation,  or  determining  the  object  calling  forth  the  given 
learning  process.  It  may  and  more  often  does  include 
leading  him  to  see  that  there  are  other  particular  expressions 
of  the  same  general  elements,  or  that  the  new  class  con- 
cept may  with  sHght  expansion  be  applied  to  still  other 
groups  of  phenomena,  processes,  problems,  or  situations. 
Though  the  particulars  or  classes  to  which  such  application 
is  made  are  different  each  from  the  other,  they  must  of 
course  in  the  last  analysis  be  essentially  similar.  Deductive 
conceptual  instruction  in  its  final  step  thus  takes  somewhat 
the  form  of  the  corresponding  process  of  inductive  instruc- 
tion, just  as  the  latter  in  its  final  step  becomes  somewhat 
deductive  in  character. 


238      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

§  6.  Methods  of  Instruction  Abridged  and  Unabridged 

Such  are  the  steps  within  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  methods  of  instruction,  when  procedure  in  teaching 
is  brought  into  conformity  with  the  learning  processes 
active  during  the  elementary  school  period.  Each  step 
in  a  particular  method  rests  upon  a  given  movement  of 
thought  as  implicitly  or  explicitly  manifest  in  the  given 
conditioning  process  of  learning,  and  the  work  of  teaching 
in  each  step  is  conditioned  by  the  character  of  the  thought 
movement  in  the  corresponding  step  of  the  determining 
learning  process.  Like  the  processes  of  learning  upon 
which  they  rest,  these  methods  of  instruction  may  at 
times  be  abridged.  The  step  of  recall  may  be  merged 
with  that  of  the  development  of  motive  and  the  statement 
of  aim,  the  work  of  elaboration  may  be  done  in  connection 
with  the  step  of  presentation;  or  the  step  of  synthesis  and 
inference,  or  that  of  verification  and  use  may  be  omitted. 
What  the  abridgment  may  be  depends  upon  the  learner 
and  upon  what  is  being  mastered.  As  a  rule,  however, 
unless  care  is  exercised,  the  abridgment  of  these  methods 
retards  rather  than  facilitates  learning.  Teaching  is  con- 
sequently most  effective  on  the  whole,  when  a  given  method 
is  followed  step  by  step  in  the  presentation  of  a  particular 
lesson. 

These  methods  of  instruction,  grounded  as  they  are  in 
the  mental  life  of  the  child,  are  to  be  regarded  as  general 
methods,  that  is,  they  are  to  be  taken  as  guides  by  the 
teacher,  in  all  branches,  in  inducing  processes  of  inductive 
perceptual  or  conceptual  learning  or  similar  deductive 
processes,  and  these  general  methods  must  be  made  basic 
in  elementary  school  instruction,  if  this  is  to  be  brought 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  INSTRUCTION  239 

into  conformity  with  the  different  processes  of  learning 
active  during  the  elementary  school  period. 

Readings 

McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitation,    pp.    78-1  i3i    146-153.    164-174, 
190-235. 

How  to  Study,  pp.  31-134,  192-220. 
Bagley,  Educative  Process,  pp.  291-315. 

Class-room  Management,  pp.  188-213. 
Keith,  Elementary  Education,  pp.  134-184. 
Strayer,  The  Teaching  Process,  pp.  41-77,  114-128. 
Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching,  pp.  38-69. 
Dewey,  How  We  Think,  pp.  201-213. 
Charters,  Methods  of  Teaching,  pp.  146-383. 


CHAPTER  rX 

THE   LESSON    PLAN    AND    ILLUSTRATIVE   PLANS 

§  I.  The  Problem 

In  view  of  the  foregoing  general  methods,  our  remain- 
ing problem  in  connection  with  elementary  school  instruc- 
tion is:  How  may  lessons  in  the  studies  of  the  elementary- 
school  be  so  planned  as  to  bring  teaching  into  conformity 
with  these  general  methods?  The  answer  to  this  question 
necessitates  a  consideration  of  the  lesson  plan. 

§  2.  The  Lesson  Plan 

I.  Meaning  and  Kinds  of  Lesson  Plans.  —  A  lesson  plan 
is  the  scheme  worked  out  by  the  teacher  to  guide  him  in 
the  teaching  of  a  lesson  as  this  is  conditioned  by  the 
subject  matter  to  be  taught  and  by  the  general  method 
of  instruction  to  be  employed. 

Since  each  of  the  general  methods  of  instruction  enters 
in  as  a  determining  factor,  the  nature  and  character  of  the 
lesson  plan  will  vary  according  as  it  is  conditioned  by  one 
or  the  other  of  these  general  methods;  in  consequence, 
there  are  as  many  different  kinds  of  lesson  plans  as  there  are 
general  methods  of  mstruction.  If  these  lesson  plans  are 
characterized  in  terms  of  the  general  method  conditioning 
them,  we  have  what  may  be  called  inductive  perceptual 
and  conceptual,  and  the  corresponding  kinds  of  deductive 
lesson  plans. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  y'  241 

2.  A  Good  Plan  and  its  Characteristics.  —  A  good  les- 
son plan  is  one  that  is  adequate  to  the  work  in  hand.  To 
fix  upon  its  essential  characteristics  would  involve  a  study 
of  each  of  the  different  kinds.  Because  of  a  similarity 
between  them,  however,  this  may  be  done  sufficiently  well 
for  purposes  of  practice,  if  the  characteristics  of  a  good 
plan  are  considered  apart  from  its  particular  kind. 

The  first  essential  of  a  good  lesson  plan  is  that  provision 
be  made  for  doing  the  work  of  each  step  of  instruction  as 
implied  in  teaching  the  lesson  in  accordance  with  a  given 
general  method.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  teacher 
should  go  out  of  his  way  to  force  the  lesson  to  conform 
to  all  the  steps  in  a  given  general  method  of  instruction, — 
for  example,  inductive  conceptual, —  but  it  does  mean  that, 
in  so  far  as  the  several  steps  are  involved  in  the  teaching 
of  a  given  lesson,  provision  should  be  made  by  the  teacher 
for  doing  the  work  implied  in  each  step.  A  lesson  is  not 
planned  when  the  teacher  fortifies  himself  on  the  side  of 
the  subject  matter  and  trusts  to  luck  and  the  occasion, 
so  far  as  particular  methods  and  means  are  concerned,  or 
when  the  work  of  one  or  two  steps  is  outlined  and  the  work 
of  the  remaining  steps  left  to  chance.  • 

A  sec  .nd  essential  is  that,  in  providing  for  the  distinc- 
tive work  of  each  step,  the  subject  matter  to  be  presented, 
the  thought  to  be  brought  out,  the  thing  to  be  done, 
should  be  separated  from  the  particular  method,  and  from 
the  ways  and  means  to  be  employed.  Thus,  to  separate 
content  from  ways  and  means  tends  to  render  the  plan 
more  serviceable  to  the  teacher  and  more  intelligible  to 
the  pupil.  A  convenient  way  of  doing  this  is  to  divide 
the  plan  with  reference  to  each  step  into  parallel  parts 
and  to  place  the  subject  matter  or  content  on  the  left- 


242      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

hand  side  and  the  particular  method  or  means  on  the 
right-hand  side. 

As  a  further  essential,  it  is  necessary,  in  connection  with 
each  step,  to  indicate  on  the  side  of  content  the  more  im- 
portant facts  to  be  presented  or  the  larger  points  to  be 
developed,  and  it  may  be  found  of  advantage  at  times  to 
give  also  certain  of  the  subordinate  ones;  it  is  necessary, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  indicate  the  particular  method  of 
instruction  to  be  employed.  If,  for  example,  the  particular 
method  to  be  used  is  that  of  the  question  and  answer, 
then  the  questions  to  be  utilized  in  directing  observation 
or  in  setting  the  larger  problems  should  be  given,  but  not 
all  the  smaller  ones  that  may  by  chance  be  used.  For, 
apart  from  the  basic  aspects  of  content  that  must  be  pre- 
sented, the  more  important  thoughts  that  must  be  de- 
veloped, and  the  larger  use  of  a  particular  method  that 
must  be  employed,  if  the  lesson  is  to  be  a  success,  the 
teacher  should  be  free  to  bring  out  whatever  phases  of 
meaning  and  to  make  whatever  use  of  method  the  occasion 
may  demand. 

Finally,  as  a  suggestion,  —  though  perhaps  not  to  be 
viewed  as  an  essential,  —  it  is  well  to  give  both  the  aim  of 
the  pupil  and  that  of  the  teacher.  For,  as  may  be  readily 
appreciated,  the  motive  of  the  child  for  studying  a  lesson 
and  the  end,  from  his  point  of  view,  to  be  accomplished 
through  it,  may  be  different  from  the  motive  and  object 
of  the  teacher  in  presenting  the  same.  The  teacher's  aim, 
however,  must  always  include  that  of  the  pupil,  and  it 
ought  to  be  more  comprehensive,  especially  in  the  lower 
grades;  in  the  upper,  the  two  aims  will  more  nearly 
coincide,  and  at  times  the  teacher's  may  be  omitted. 
Thus,  to  separate  the  pupil's  and  the  teacher's  aim  adds 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  243 

effectiveness  to  instruction  and  makes  apparent  to  others 
the  teacher's  object  in  giving  the  particular  lesson. 

3,  Necessity  oj  the  Lesson  Plan.  —  Though  the  above 
conception  of  a  good  lesson  plan  and  of  its  essential  charac- 
teristics leaves  ample  opportunity,  as  we  believe,  for 
originality,  spontaneity,  and  adaptability,  the  lesson  plan 
cannot  take  the  place  of  these  in  good  teaching.  On 
the  other  hand,  inability  to  make  a  good  plan,  lack  of 
appreciation  of  its  worth,  and  disdain  of  its  use  should 
never  be  taken  as  signs  of  teaching  power.  For  no  one, 
however  great  his  ability,  is  prepared  to  teach  a  lesson 
until  it  has  been  thoroughly  worked  over,  carefully  organ- 
ized, and  the  plan  for  it  reduced  to  writing.  As  a  prin- 
ciple, therefore,  no  lesson  should  be  taught  without  a 
written  plan. 

4.  Plan  for  Thought-Whole  or  Single  Lesson.  —  Instruc- 
tion has  to  do  in  the  main  with  thought-wholes,  such  as, 
for  example,  the  Critical  Period,  Decimal  Fractions,  the 
Great  Stone  Face,  Adjectives,  Plant  Distribution,  etc. 
The  question  arises,  are  these  to  be  planned 'as  wholes  or 
should  there  be  a  plan  for  each  lesson?  The  larger  topics 
of  instruction  are  readily  subdivided  into  smaller  thought 
units,  and  as  a  rule  one  of  these  thought  units  will  supply 
the  content  of  a  lesson.  It  may  at  times,  to  be  sure, 
take  two  or  three  class  periods  to  present  a  single  unit, 
but  at  other  times  two  or  even  more  units  may  be  covered 
in  one  recitation.  By  making  one  or  more  of  these  smaller 
thought  units  the  basis  of  a  lesson,  and  through  organizing 
the  lesson  with  reference  to  the  presentation  of  these 
units,  each  lesson  has  its  plan.  On  the  other  hand,  if  each 
lesson  is  prepared  with  a  view  to  presenting  one  or  more 
smaller  units  of  thought  as  parts  of  a  larger  whole,  the 


244      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

larger  topic  itself  is  thereby  planned.  In  short,  in  dealing 
with  the  larger  thought-wholes  of  instruction,  each  lesson 
or  series  should  be  so  planned  as  to  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  plan  for  the  larger  topic  under  consideration. 


§ 


3.  Illustrative  Inductive  Perceptual 


Lesson  Plans 


Light  will  be  thrown  upon  how  the  different  general 
methods  of  instruction  enter  in  to  condition  the  teaching 
of  given  lessons  and  upon  how  these  are  to  be  planned, 
if  a  few  illustrative  lessons  are  given. 

LESSON    IN    PRIMARY    NUMBER 

Based  on  Heath's  Beginner's  Arithmetic 

The  Meaning  of  the  Number  Two 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter 


Method 


I.  To  arouse  the  desire  to  learn 
more  of  the  nxunber  2  and  of  how  to 
use  it. 


3.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  learn  more 
about  what  we  mean  by  2  inches, 
2  dollars,  a  gallons. 


3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  bring  the 
pupils  to  a  better  knowledge  and  a 
clearer  appreciation  of  the  meaning 
of  the  number  2. 


1.  You  have  learned  how  to  count 
and  how  the  number  i  is  used.  How 
many  can  count  by  2's?  (Let  those 
who  think  they  can,  try.)  What  is 
the  sum  of  $2  +  $2?  $2  +  $2  +  $2? 
etc.  What  is  the  cost  of  two  Teddy 
bears  at  $2  apiece?  etc.  Some  of 
you  do  very  well,  but  how  many 
would  Uke  to  know  still  more  about 
the  number  2  and  how  to  use  it? 

2.  To  learn  how  to  use  the  nvmiber 
2,  it  will  be  best  for  us  if  we  first 
learn  more  about  what  we  mean 
when  we  say  2  inches,  2  dollars,  2 
gallons,  etc.  If  we  try  to  do  this, 
how  may  we  state  the  aim  of  our 
first  lesson  on  the  number  2? 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


245 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


I.  Review  of  2  and  of  its  use  as 
known  by  children: 

a.  In  counting  parts  of  body 

b.  In  counting  money 

c.  In  counting  objects 


I.  How  many  hands  have  you? 
Eyes?    Ears?     Feet? 

In  one  dollar,  how  many  fifty-cent 
pieces?  In  fifty  cents,  how  many 
quarters?  In  a  dime,  how  many 
five  cents? 

In  this  room,  how  many  doors, 
windows,  etc.? 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


I.  Use  of  2  in  constructive  exer- 
ses: 

a.  In  making  angles 

b.  In  making  triangles 

c.  In  making  squares 


2.  Use  in  separating  into  2  groups. 


3- 
of  2 


Use  in  separating  into  groups 


4.  The  symbol  2. 


I.  Have  pupils,  using  inch  splints 
and  toothpicks,  construct  angles,  the 
sides  of  which  are  2  inches,  a  tooth- 
picks in  length. 

Have  pupils  construct  triangles, 
the  sides  of  which  are  a  inches,  2 
toothpicks  in  length. 

Have  pupils  construct  squares, 
the  sides  of  which  are  2  inches,  3 
toothpicks    in    length. 

2.  Separate  these  blocks,  splints, 
toothpicks  into  2  groups. 

3.  Separate  these  blocks,  splints, 
toothpicks  into  groups  of  a. 

4.  Presentation  of  symbol.  Read- 
ing and  writing  of  it  by  pupils. 


Stibject  Matter 


Elaboration- 


Method 


I.  Emphasis  of  thought  that  2 
means  a  given  quantity,  measured 
by  repeating  a  given  measuring  unit 
twice. 


I.  How  many  inches  long  is  each 
side  of  this  angle?  Of  this  one? 
How  many  times  must  you  repeat  a 
one-inch  measure  to  measure  each 
side?  (The  angles  constructed  are 
used  as  basis  of  discussion.) 

How  many  inches  long  is  each  side 
of  this  triangle?  How  many  tooth- 
picks long?    How  many  times  must 


246      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

you  repeat  a  one-inch  measiu'e  to 
measure  each  side?  One  toothpick 
taken  as  a  measure?  Ask  similar 
questions  with  reference  to  the 
square. 

How  many  blocks  in  each  group? 
(Four.)  How  many  altogether? 
How  many  times  must  four  blocks 
used  as  a  measure  be  taken  to  mea- 
sure eight  blocks?  Ask  similar  ques- 
tions with  reference  to  splints  and 
toothpicks. 

How  many  groups  of  2  blocks  have 
you?  (Six.)  How  many  aU  to- 
gether? How  many  times  must  2 
blocks  taken  as  a  measure  be  repeated 
to  measure  12  blocks?  Ask  similar 
questions  with  reference  to  splints 
and  toothpicks. 

Subject  Matter  Synthesis  and  Inference  Metliod 

1.  Emphasis  of  meaning  of  2.  i.  What  do  I  mean  by  the  side  of 

an  angle  being  2  inches  long?  The 
side  of  a  triangle  being  2  toothpicks 
long?  The  side  of  a  square  being  2 
inches  long?  Etc.  What  do  I 
mean  by  a  group  of  2  blocks?  Etc. 
That  in  1 2  blocks,  there  are  2  groups 
of  6  blocks?     Etc. 

2.  Expansion  of  new  meaning  of  2        2.  What,  then,  do  we  mean  by  2 
to  other  measures.  inches?     2    dollars?     2    gallons?     2 

pounds?     Etc. 

Subject  Matter  Verification  and  Use  Method 

1.  AppUcation  of  thought  gained        i.  In  this  class,  how  many  groups 
of  the  meaning  of  2  in  counting.  of  2  girls?    Of  2  boys?    Of  2  seats? 

In  this  class,  how  many  pairs  of 
eyes?    Of  hands?    Etc. 

2.  Application  in  solution  of  simple        2.  In  4  dollars  how  many  two  dol- 
problems.  lars?    Why?    In    4    gallons,    how 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  247 

many  two  gallons?  Why?  Etc. 
In  $10  how  many  $5?  WTiy?  In 
$2cx)  how  many  $100?  Why?  Etc. 
For  ten  cents,  how  many  oranges 
can  you  buy  at  five  cents  each? 
Why?  For  $1,  how  many  knives 
can  you  buy  at  50  cents  each?  Why? 
Etc. 

The  foregoing  plan  of  a  lesson  in  primary  number  is 
typical  of  those  for  the  work  in  arithmetic  of  the  first 
three  grades,  when  this  conforms  to  the  inductive  per- 
ceptual method  of  instruction.  How  such  a  plan  may  be 
used  is  not  far  to  seek.  Embodying  as  it  does,  on  the 
one  hand,  a  statement  of  the  purpose  and  of  the  main 
thoughts  to  be  developed  in  connection  with  the  given 
topic,  and  embodying,  on  the  other,  the  particular  methods 
and  means  to  be  employed  in  so  far  as  these  can  be  pre- 
determined, the  teacher  may  take  the  plan  as  a  guide  on 
both  the  side  of  content  and  of  method.  In  the  teach- 
ing of  the  above  lesson  in  conformity  thereto,  there  is  no 
assignment  to  be  made,  as  the  work  implied  is  to  be  done 
in  the  class.  The  teacher  may  consequently  follow  the 
plan  step  by  step  and  from  point  to  point.  The  plan, 
however,  is  not  to  be  viewed  as  unalterable.  Indeed,  it 
is  the  mark  of  a  good  teacher  to  be  able  to  adjust  her  plan 
to  the  unforeseen.  Yet,  as  a  rule,  a  plan  like  the  above 
is  sufficiently  flexible  to  be  easily  altered  and  can  be  pur- 
sued with  little  deviation  from  its  essential  features.  To 
be  sure,  the  work  implied  in  its  execution  may  consume 
more  than  one  class  or  recitation  period;  but  however 
that  may  be,  such  a  plan  serves  day  by  day  as  a  guide  in 
the  presentation  and  development  of  the  given  unit  of 
thought. 


a48     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

LESSON  IN  PRIMARY  READING 

Based  on  the  Haliburton  Readers 

Silver  Locks  and  the  Three  Bears 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 


I.  To  stimxilate  the  desire  to  know 
the  story  of  Silver  Locks  and  the 
Three  Bears,  to  reproduce,  and  to 
read  iL 


«.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  learn  the  story 
of  Silver  Locks  and  the  Three  Bears 
that  we  may  act  it  and  read  it. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  bring  the 
children  to  a  knowledge  of  this  piece 
of  folklore,  to  perception  of  the  truth 
of  life  therein,  and  to  an  appreciative 
reading  of  it. 


1.  Of  whom  is  this  a  picture? 
(Teacher  showing  a  picture  of  Silver 
Locks.)  It  is  a  picture  of  Silver 
Locks.  How  many  have  heard  the 
story  of  Silver  Locks  and  the  Three 
Bears?  A  very  nice  play  may  be 
made  from  it.  How  many  would 
like  to  know  this  story?  Like  to  act 
it  in  a  play?    Read  it? 

2.  If  I  tell  you  the  story  of  Silver 
Locks  and  the  Three  Bears,  what  are 
we  going  to  try  to  do? 


Subject  Mailer 


Recall 


Method 


I.  Review  of  children's  knowledge 
of  bears  —  appearance,  habits,  tem- 
per. 


1.  You  may  tell  us  how  a  bear 
looks.  You  may  tell  us  where  and 
how  he  lives.  You  may  tell  us  what 
a  bear  might  do  if  bothered  by  a 
little  girl. 


Subject  Matkr 


Presentation 


Method 


I.  Silver  Locks  and  her  name. 
a.  Silver  Locks  and  the  butterfly. 

3.  The  home  of  the  Three  Bears. 

4.  The  Three  Bears. 

5.  Silver  Locks  in  the  kitchen. 

6.  Silver  Locks  in  the  parlor. 


I.  The  teacher  here  narrates  the 
story  point  by  point  on  the  assump>- 
tion  that  the  children  are  unable  to 
gain  thought  as  yet  with  economy 
from  the  printed  page,  or  she  gives 
certain  points  and  develops  others. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


249 


7.  Silver  Locks  in  the  bedroom. 

8.  Return  of  the  Three  Bears. 

9.  Three  Bears  and  their  porridge. 

10.  Tliree  Bears  and  their  chairs. 

11.  Three  Bears  and  their  beds. 

12.  Discovery  and  narrow  escape 
of  Silver  Locks. 


varying  with  conditions.  Pictures, 
drawings,  etc.  are  used  to  give  reality 
and  vividness. 

Later,  when  the  children  have  the 
requisite  ability,  they  may  be  as- 
signed the  task  of  reading  the  story 
silently  in  view  of  acquiring  the  facts 
for  themselves.  In  this  case,  free 
use  is  made  in  this  step  of  the  pivotal 
question,  and  pictures,  drawings,  etc. 
are  used  to  give  reahty  to  the  impres- 
sions gained. 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


I.  New  words :  porridge,  butterfly 
kitchen,  etc.;   also  phrase  reading. 


2.  Silver  Locks. 

3.  The  Three  Bears. 

4.  Silver  Locks  in  the  kitchen. 

5.  Silver  Locks  in  the  parlor. 

6.  Silver  Locks  in  the  bedroom. 

7.  Return  of  the  Three  Bears  to 
the  kitchen. 

8.  The  Three  Bears  in  the  parlor. 


9.  The  Three  Bears  in  the  bed- 
room. 


1.  By  suggestive  questions  and 
free  use  of  past  experience,  the 
teacher  develops  meaning  of  new 
written  words,  teaches  spcUing, 
pronunciation,  and  phrase  reading. 

2.  Describe  Uttle  Silver  Locks  and 
tell  why  this  was  her  name. 

3.  Who  were  the  Three  Bears  and 
where  did  they  live? 

4.  What  did  Silver  Locks  find  in 
the  kitchen  and  what  did  she  do? 

5.  What  did  Silver  I^cks  find  in 
the  parlor  and  what  did  she  do? 

6.  What  did  Silver  Locks  find  in 
the  bedroom  and  what  did  she  do? 

7.  What  did  the  father  bear  find 
on  returning  to  the  kitchen,  and  what 
did  he  do  and  say?  The  mother 
bear?    The  baby  bear? 

8.  What  did  the  father  bear  find 
in  the  parlor  and  what  did  he  do  and 
say?  The  mother  bear?  The  baby 
bear? 

9.  What  did  tlic  father  bear  find 
on  entering  the  bedroom,  and  what 
did  he  do  and  say?  The  mother 
bear?    The  baby  bear? 


2S0      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

10.  Narrow  escape  of  Silver  Locks.       lo.  How  did  Silver  Locks  escape? 

Why  was  it  right  that  she  should  be 
greatly  frightened? 

Subject  Matter  Synthesis  and  Inference  Method 

I.  Summary  of  main  points  of  i.  Repetition  of  story  as  a  whole 
story.  by  children. 

Subject  Matter  Verification  and  Use  Method 

I.  Use  of  knowledge  and  apprecia-  i.  Have  different   children  draw 

tion  gained:  or  mould  various  parts  of  story;   let 

a.  In    reproducing    the    story  them  select   the   best   drawings  or 
through  drawing  or  moulding  mouldings  and  from  these  construct 

b.  In  dramatizing  it  the  story  as  a  whole. 

c.  In  learning  to  read  it  with  Guide  and  direct  the  children  in 
appreciation  and  expression  dramatizing  the  story. 

Guide  and  direct  children  in  giving 
oral  expression  to  the  thought  and 
spirit  of  the  story. 

Such  is  the  plan  of  a  primary  reading  lesson  when  con- 
ditioned by  the  inductive  perceptual  method  of  instruction. 
To  teach  the  given  lesson  would  consume  four  or  perhaps 
five  recitation  periods.  In  the  first,  the  motive  would  be 
developed,  the  aim  stated,  the  proper  past  experiences 
recalled,  and  either  the  entire  story  narrated  by  the  teacher 
or  certain  points  given  and  others  developed.  During  the 
second  period,  through  suggestive  questions  and  free  dis- 
cussion, the  more  important  points  as  indicated  in  the 
step  of  elaboration  would  be  brought  out  and  the  story 
as  a  whole  summarized  or  retold  by  the  children.  There 
would  also  be  drill  upon  new  words  and  especially  upon 
phrase  reading.  Up  to  this  time,  all  work  has  been  done 
in  the  class.  At  the  end  of  the  second  period  and  as  pre- 
paratory for  the  next,  the  children  would  be  divided  into 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  251 

groups  and  assigned  the  task  of  drawing  or  moulding  some 
particular  portion  of  the  selection.  In  the  third,  these 
drawings  would  be  inspected  and  from  the  best  the  story 
as  a  whole  constructed.  The  remainder  of  this  period 
would  be  taken  up  with  the  dramatization  of  the  story, 
and  indeed  this  might  have  to  go  over  to  a  fourth.  However 
this  may  be,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  period  the  task  of 
studying  the  printed  story  from  the  point  of  view  of  oral 
expression  is  assigned  to  the  children  as  seat  work  for  the  last 
recitation  period,  and  their  reading  of  it  with  appreciation 
constitutes  the  final  work  in  teaching  the  story  of  Silver 
Locks  and  the  Three  Bears. 

When  pupils  are  able  to  acquire  the  desired  facts  from 
the  printed  page,  as  in  the  later  primary  grades,  the  plan 
dififers  somewhat  from  the  above  on  the  method  side  in 
the  step  of  presentation,  and  the  work  in  the  step  of 
elaboration  becomes  more  condensed.  This  makes  a  dif- 
ference in  the  way  the  plan  is  used.  In  this  case,  at  the 
end  of  a  preceding  period  the  teacher  develops  the  motive, 
has  the  desired  past  experiences  recalled,  teaches  the 
meaning  of  the  new  words,  and  as  a  seat  task  assigns  the 
points  outlined  in  the  step  of  presentation  as  topics  of 
study.  The  first  period  is  then  devoted  to  a  restatement 
of  the  aim,  to  a  brief  review  of  the  more  important  parts 
of  the  experiences  recalled  and  the  new  words  taught,  and 
to  bringing  out  one  by  one,  through  the  use  of  pivotal 
questions  and  free  discussion,  the  different  portions  of  the 
story.  But  from  this  point  on,  with  the  exception  of 
differences  due  to  the  greater  maturity  of  the  children, 
and  the  consequent  condensation  of  the  work  in  elaboration, 
procedure  in  the  two  cases  is  similar. 

The  pursuance  in  actual  instruction  of  such  a  plan 


252      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

throws  the  emphasis  upon  thought-getting  and  upon  the 
stimulation  of  appreciation,  —  the  mere  mechanics  of  read- 
ing is  made  secondary.  To  plan  and  teach  primary  reading 
in  this  way  would,  it  is  believed,  materially  improve  the 
work  in  this  branch  of  learning. 

The  above  lesson  plan  —  particularly  with  the  modifi- 
cations suggested  —  is  not  only  illustrative  of  an  inductive 
perceptual  lesson  in  primary  reading,  but  also  — ^  because 
of  the  similarity  of  the  materials  and  the  character  of  the 
instruction  —  is  equally  illustrative  of  how  inductive  per- 
ceptual lessons  in  the  earlier  work  in  history  are  to  be 
planned  and  presented.  Indeed,  the  only  difference  be- 
tween the  two  is  that  oral  reading  naturally  forms  no 
part  of  history  teaching. 

LESSON   IN  HOME   GEOGRAPHY 

Based  on  an  excursion  to  the  Athens  Brick  Co. 

Brick  Making 

Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 

1.  To  stimulate  the  desire  to  learn  i.  What  is  this?  (Showing  an 
how  Athens  blocks  are  made.  Athens  block,  the  name  of  a  brick 

made  at  Athens.)  You  may  tell  of 
one  way  in  which  Athens  blocks  are 
used.  You  may  tell  of  another.  Etc. 
How  are  Athens  blocks  made?  How 
many  would  like  to  visit  the  plant 
and  learn? 

2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  see  how  Athens  2.  If  we  do  this,  what  will  be  the 
blocks  are  made.  chief  purpose  of  our  visit? 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  teach  the 
children  how  Athens  blocks  are  made 
and  to  thereby  lay  the  foundation  of 
appreciating  the  essential  features  in 
the  manufacture  of  clay  products. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


253 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


1.  The  shale-bank  and  the  digging 
of  the  shale: 

a.  Size  and  appearance  of  bank 

b.  Appearance  and  character  of 
shale 

c.  Mode  of  digging 

2.  Conveying  of  shale  to  plant : 

a.  Cars  and  tracks 

b.  Loading 

c.  Mules  and  drivers 

d.  Unloading 

3.  The  mill  or  grinder: 

a.  Shape  and  character  of  mill 

b.  Letting  of  shale  into  mill 

c.  Work  of  mill 

d.  Appearance  of  shale  on  com- 
ing from  mill 

4.  The  sieve: 

a.  Form  and  character  of  sieve 

b.  Conveying  of  shale  to  sieve 

c.  Work  of  sieve 

5.  The  mixer: 

a.  Form  and  character  of  mixer 

b.  Letting  of  shale  into  mLxer 

c.  The  mixing 

d.  Appearance  of   mixed  shale 

6.  The  press: 

a.  Form    and    appearance    of 
press 

b.  Admission  of  shale 

c.  Work  of  press 

d.  Appearance  of  shale  coming 
from  press 

7.  The  cut-off: 

a.  Form    and    appearance    of 
cut-off 

b.  Work  of  cut-off 

c.  Appearance  of  shale  coming 
from  cut-off 


I.  On  visiting  the  shale-bank,  the 
observation  of  the  children  is  directed 
by  the  teacher  through  suggestive 
questions  to  the  points  as  indicated. 


2.  Method  same  as  above  (i)  in 
the  presentation  of  this  and  all  re- 
maining points. 


254      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

8.  The  repress: 

a.  Form    and    appearance    of 
repress 

b.  Work  of  repress 

c.  Appearance  of  shale  on  leav- 
ing repress 

9.  The  carriage  trucks: 

a.  Appearance 

b.  Use 

10.  The  drying-kiln: 

a.  Construction 

b.  Hot  air  fan 

c.  The  drying 

d.  The  bricks  on  coming  from 
drying-kUn 

11.  The  firing-kiln: 

a.  Form  and  construction 

b.  Appearance  empty 

c.  Appearance  filled 

d.  The  firing:    fuel  and  dura- 
tion 

e.  The  brick  when  fired 


Subject  Matter  Elaboration  Method 

1.  Shale  as  material  out  of  which        i.  Name  and  describe  the  material 
Athens  blocks  are  made.  out  of  which  Athens  blocks  are  made. 

Tell  how  it  is  obtained. 

2.  The  milling  of  the  shale.  2.  Describe  the  process   through 

which  the  shale  is  made  into  a  pow- 
der.    Why  is  it  made  into  a  powder? 

3.  The  mixing.  3.  When  mUled,  how  is  the  shale 

prepared  for  the  press?    Why  is  this 
done? 

4.  The  pressing.  4.  How    is    the    shale    pressed? 

What  is  the  purpose  of  this? 

5.  The  drying  of  brick.  5.  Describe  the  process  of  drying 

and  tell  why  this  is  done. 

6.  The  burning  of  brick.  6.  Describe    the   burning   of   the 

brick  and  give  reasons  for  burning. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


255 


Subject  Matter  Sv.XTiiESis  and  Ini-ere.\ce  Method 


I.  Summary    with    reference    to  i.  Describe  the  material  used  and 

material  used  and  the  process  as  a     tell  how  Athens  blocks  are  made, 
whole   involved   in   making   Athens         2.  Have  one  section  of  the  class 
Blocks.  draw  a  picture  of  the  shale-bank; 

another,  of  how  the  shale  is  conveyed 
to  the  mill,  etc.  Ha\e  class  select 
the  best  picture  from  each  group  and 
form  and  preserve  as  picture-whole  of 
the  process. 

The  above  lesson  plan  would  be  used  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: At  the  end  of  a  previous  recitation  period,  the  teacher 
would  develop  the  desire  to  visit  the  brick  plant  and  to 
learn  how  Athens  blocks  are  made.  Wherever  possible, 
it  is  well  to  develop  in  a  recitation  period,  as  a  class  exercise, 
the  different  points  in  the  process  to  be  obser\-ed.  With 
the  desire  excited  and  the  object  fixed,  the  teacher  on  the 
same  or  the  following  day  visits  the  plant  with  the  chil- 
dren, and  through  directive  questioning  guides  them  in 
the  observation  of  the  process  point  by  point  as  outlined 
and  developed  in  the  step  of  presentation.  (Many  excur- 
sions and  object  lessons  fail,  because  the  teacher  has  no 
definite  ;"  ^ea  of  what  is  to  be  observed,  and  as  a  result  the 
children,  relatively  undirected,  see  little.)  On  the  follow- 
ing day,  the  distinct  parts  of  the  process  are  taken  up  one 
by  one,  as  indicated  in  the  step  of  elaboration,  and  through 
suggestive  questions  and  free  discussion,  the  meaning 
and  purpose  of  each  is  made  clear.  Up  to  this  point,  all 
the  work  has  been  done  either  at  the  brick  plant  or  in  the 
class.  On  the  completion  of  elaboration  and  for  the  suc- 
ceeding period,  the  teacher  assigns  to  different  groups  the 
task  of  preparing  to  describe  a  given  part  of  the  process  of 


256      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

making  Athens  blocks;  there  is  also  assigned  the  addi- 
tional task  of  making  a  drawing  of  some  particular  portion 
of  the  process.  The  final  recitation  period  is  then  spent 
in  hearing  these  descriptions,  in  criticising  the  drawings, 
in  the  selection  by  the  class  of  the  best  drawings  and  in 
constructing  from  these  a  picture  of  the  process.  In  the 
given  lesson,  it  will  be  noted,  there  is  no  immediate  appli- 
cation made  of  the  information  acquired,  the  present  need 
of  the  child  being  satisfied  with  its  acquisition.  In 
geography  in  general,  however,  there  is  a  broad  field  for 
application  and  this  often  takes  the  form  of  actual 
construction. 

The  above  plan,  although  of  an  inductive  perceptual 
lesson  in  geography,  serves  to  illustrate  how  similar  ones 
in  elementary  school  science  are  to  be  prepared,  and  the 
suggestions  with  reference  to  its  use  apply  equally  well 
to  the  teaching  of  these. 

§  4.  Illustrative  Deductive  Perceptual  Lesson  Plans 
lesson  in  primary  number 

Based  on  Heath's  Beginner's  Arithmetic 

Multiplication  Table  of  Two's 

Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 

I.  To  arouse  the  desire  to  learn  i.  If  you  buy  2  dolls  at  $2  each, 
how  to  multiply  when  2  is  the  how  do  you  find  the  sum  to  be  paid? 
measure.  (Most  of  the  children,  in  view  of 

previous  instruction,  will  answer, 
"By  addition.")  Give  other  similar 
problems,  and  lead  them  to  see  that 
the  amount  to  be  paid  may  be  foimd 
by  taking  the  given  sum  as  a  measure 
a  given  number  of  times.     Show  the 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


257 


2.  Pupil's  Aim:  How  to  multiply 
when  2  is  the  measure. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  teach  the 
pupils  how  to  multiply  when  2  is  the 
measure  and  to  teach  them  thereby 
the  multiplication  table  of  2's. 


children  the  convenience  and  utility 
of  this  method.  Tell  them  that  the 
amount  is  found  by  what  is  called 
multiplication.  You  have  learned 
to  count  by  2's  and  how  to  add  2 's.  I 
am  sure  you  will  now  like  to  learn 
how  to  multiply  by  2. 

2.  If  we  try  to  learn  this,  what 
point  shall  we  keep  in  mind? 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Melhod 


1.  Review  meaning  of  2. 

2.  Review  addition  of  2's. 


1.  What  is  meant  by  $2,  2  pints, 
2  gallons,  2  quarts,  2  inches,  2  yards? 

2.  Add  $2  $2  $2  $2  $2  $2  $2  $2 


Have  problems  and  answers  writ- 
ten on  blackboard  in  x-iew  of  pupils. 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


1.  Deduction  of  thought  that 
2  X  $2  =  $4,  2x2  in.  =■  4  in.,  etc., 
and  that  2  X  2  of  any  quantity  -  4 
of  that  quantity. 


I.  In  the  first  problem,  how  many 
$2  are  added?  How  many  times 
must  $2  be  taken  to  measure  $4? 
2  X  $2  -  ?  How  many  times  must 
2  in.  be  taken  to  measure  4  in.? 
2  X  2  in.  -  ?  2  yd.  be  taken  to 
measure  4  yd.?  2x2  yd.  -  ?  How 
many  times  must  2  be  taken  to 
measure  4  of  any  quantity?  2X2 
of  any  quantity  -  ?  Place  answer 
in  view  of  pupils. 


258  ,  PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

2.  Deduction    of    thought    that        2.  Proceed  as  in  i. 
3  X  $2  =  $6,  3  X  2  in.  x=  6  in.,  etc., 

and  3  X  2  of  any  quantity  =-  6  of 
that  quantity. 

3.  Continue  until  the  table  includ- 
ing 9  X  2  is  developed. 


Subject  Matter 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Method 


I.  Summary   of   table   of    2's   as 
deduced. 


I.  Summary    by   pupils    through 
solution  of  problems: 

2X$2=?       2X2  =  ?       3X$2   =  ? 

3X2  =  ?     Etc. 


Subject  Matter 


Verification  and  Use 


Method 


1.  Verification  of  table  deduced 
through  comparison  with  previous 
work  in  addition. 

2.  Verification  through  measure- 
ments. 


3.  Solution  of  problems. 

4.  Memorize  table. 


1.  Compare  the  sum  of  $2  +  $2 
with  the  product  of  2  x  $2,  the  sum 
of  $2  +  $2  +  $2  wfth  the  product  of 
3  X  $2,  etc. 

2.  Measure  a  4  in.  strip  with  a  2  in. 
measure;  6  in.  strip;  8  in.  strip,  etc. 
Record  length  of  measure,  the  times 
taken  in  measurement,  and  length  of 
strip  measured.  Compare  results 
with  table  as  deducted. 

3.  Solution  and  simple  explana- 
tion on  part  of  pupils. 

4.  Drill  on  table  of  2's. 


The  deductive  perceptual  lesson  plan  is  used  much  hke 
the  inductive.  In  teaching  the  above  lesson,  the  plan 
would  be  followed  point  by  point  up  to  and  including  the 
first  one  in  the  step  of  verification  and  use,  the  work 
being  done  in  the  class.  On  completing  the  lesson  to  this 
point,  the  teacher  would  give,  as  seat  work,  the  task  of 
verifying  the  table  through  actual  measurements  and  the 
solution  and  explanation  of  given  problems.  The  next 
class  period  would  be  devoted  to  considering  the  results 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  259 

obtained  by  measurement  and  to  the  explanation  of  the 
respective  problems.  At  the  end  of  this  recitation,  the 
remaining  examples  would  be  assigned,  also  the  formula- 
tion by  the  children  of  other  problems  and  their  solution, 
and  the  task  of  memorizing  the  table.  The  succeeding 
period  would  then  be  spent  in  the  explanation  of  these 
problems  by  the  children  and  in  drill  upon  the  table. 

The  deductive  perceptual  method  of  instruction  has  as 
yet  been  little  used  in  primary  number.  Nevertheless,  in 
all  but  the  very  earHest  portions,  it  finds  a  broad  field  of 
application.  It  is  beUeved  that,  as  time  goes  on,  such 
instruction  will  be  brought  more  and  more  into  conformity 
with  this  method  and  that  the  deductive  perceptual  lesson 
will  come  more  and  more  into  use. 

LESSON  IN   PRIM.A.RY   READING 
Based  on  Baldwin's  Robinson  Crusoe 

How  Robinson  Made  Pots  and  Jars 

Development  op  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 

1.  To  stimulate  the  desire  to  learn  i.  What  did  we  learn  in  our  last 
how  Robinson  made  pots  and  jars,     lesson  that  Robinson  had  succeeded 

in  raising?  What  are  some  of  the 
more  important  things  that  your 
mother  uses  in  cooking?  Which  did 
Robinson  have?  Of  those  he  didn't 
have,  which  would  he  now  need  the 
most?  Why?  (Lead  the  children 
to  see  that  he  would  need  pots  to 
cook  in  and  jars  to  put  things  in.) 
How  might  Robinson  get  them? 

2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  find  out  how  2.  If  we  try  to  find  out,  how  may 
Robinson  made  pots  and  jars.  we  state  the  aim  of  our  lesson? 

3.  Teacher's   Aim:    To   lead   the 
children  to  see  how  Robinson  made 


26o     PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


pots  and  jars,  and  thereby  to  appre- 
ciate primitive  modes  of  making 
these;  and  also  to  appreciate  the 
advantages  of  Uving  in  an  age  and 
society  like  our  own. 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


I.  Need  of  finding  suitable  ma- 


terial. 


2.  Need  of  finding  out   how  to 
form  material  into  pots  and  jars. 


1.  If  Robinson  was  to  have  pots 
and  jars,  what  would  he  have  to 
secure?  (Lead  children  to  see  that 
he  must  have  suitable  material.) 

2.  Having  prociu'ed  the  material, 
what  further  difficulties  would  Rob- 
inson have?  (Lead  children  to  see 
that  he  must  learn  to  make  pots  and 
jars  from  the  given  material.) 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Review  of  how  Logan  crocks 
and  jars  are  made:  material  used, 
moulding,  drying,  firing. 

2.  Review  of  materials  used  in 
making  pots  and  jars. 

3.  Review  of  use  of  pots  and  jars. 


1.  Out  of  what  did  we  find  that 
Logan  crocks  and  jars  are  made? 
How  are  these  moulded?  How 
dried?    How  hardened? 

2.  What  materials  are  used  in 
making  pots  and  jars? 

3.  In  what  ways  does  your  mother 
use  her  pots  and  jars? 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


I.  Material  used  by  Robinson. 


2.  Moulding  of  pots  and  jars. 


1.  Of  what  would  Robinson  think 
to  make  his  pots  and  jars?  Which 
of  these  would  he  decide  upon  and 
why?  How  do  you  suppose  he  went 
about  finding  the  right  kind  of  clay? 
(Lead  children  to  see  that  he  would 
have  to  make  both  of  clay  and  that 
it  would  not  be  easy  to  find  it.) 

2.  How  would  Robinson  mix  the 
clay  and  mould  his  pots  and  jars? 
(Lead  children  to  see  that  he  would 
have  to  mix  the  clay  and  mould  the 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


261 


3.  Drying  of  pots  and  jars. 


4.  Firing  of  pots  and  jars. 


5.  Use  made  of  pots  and  jars. 


vessels  by  hand,  and  that  it  would 
take  many  trials  to  learn  how  to  do 
the  latter.) 

3.  How  would  Robinson  dry  bis 
pots  and  jars?  (Lead  children  to 
see  that  he  would  put  them  in  the 
sun.) 

4.  How  would  Robinson  fire  his 
pots  and  jars?  (Lead  children  to 
see  that  he  would  build  a  tire  around 
them,  and  that  it  took  many  trials 
to  learn  how  to  do  this  well.) 

5.  Why  did  Robinson  want  pots 
and  jars?     How  did  he  use  them? 


Subject  Mailer 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Method 


I.  Summary:  material  used,  way 
of  moulding,  drying,  firing;  use  made 
of  finished  articles. 


I.  Tell  the  story  of  how  you  think 
Robinson  made  his  pots  and  jars  and 
of  how  you  think  he  used  these. 


Subject  Mailer 


Veiofication  and  Use 


Method 


1.  Reading  of  how  Robinson  made 
his  pots  and  jars  and  of  how  he  used 
them,  pp.  74-77. 

2.  Application  of  knowledge 
gained  in  moulding  pots  and  jars 
and  in  firing  these  where  convenient. 


1.  Guide  and  direct  children  in 
the  learning  of  new  written  words 
and  in  reading  the  story. 

2.  Guide  and  direct  children  in 
moulding,  dr>ing,  and  firing  pota 
and  jars. 


In  teaching  this  lesson  according  to  the  above  plan, 
since  relatively  all  the  work  is  done  in  the  class,  the 
teacher  would  be  able  in  the  first  recitation  period  to  stimu- 
late the  necessary  motive,  be  able  doubtless  to  cover  the 
steps  of  presentation  and  recall,  and  to  advance  well  along 
into  that  of  elaboration.  In  the  second,  beginning  with 
a  brief  review,  the  remaining  points  in  the  step  of  elabora- 
tion would  be  developed  and  the  story  as  a  whole  summar- 
ized by  the  children.     At  the  end  of  this  period,   there 


262      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

would  be  assigned  as  seat  work  a  study  of  the  printed 
story  with  a  view  to  seeing  how  Robinson  actually  made 
his  pots  and  jars,  and  to  giving  oral  expression  to  the 
story.  The  final  recitation  would  then  be  devoted  to  the 
reading  of  the  story. 

This  plan  is  not  only  typical  of  deductive  perceptual 
lessons  in  primary  reading,  but  because  of  similarity  be- 
tween the  two,  it  illustrates  also  how  to  plan  and  present 
similar  lessons  in  primary  history;  and  from  the  nature 
of  these  subjects  as  they  appear  in  the  primary  grades, 
they  offer  wide  range  for  the  use  of  deductive  perceptual 
instruction. 

§  5.  Illustrative  Inductive  Conceptual  Lesson  Plans 

LESSON    in    arithmetic 

Based  on  Walsh-Suzzallo's  Arithmetics,  Practical  Applications 

To  Find  a  Given  Per  Cent  of  a  Number 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 


I.  To  stimulate  the  desire  to  learn 
how  to  find  the  part  of  a  number 
when  that  part  to  be  found  is  given 
in  terms  of  per  cent. 


I.  You  have  learned  how  to  find 
a  fractional  part  of  a  number,  also 
how  to  find  a  decimal  part.  In  the 
world  of  business,  the  part  of  a 
number  to  be  taken  or  to  be  found  is 
expressed  usually  in  terms  of  per 
cent  rather  than  in  terms  of  common 
or  decimal  fractions.  The  business 
operations  in  which  this  is  true  are 
the  more  important  ones  and  the 
ones  with  which  we  all  have  to  do 
sooner  or  later.  To  know  how  to 
find  a  given  per  cent  of  a  number  is 
as  helpful  as  to  know  how  to  find  a 
fractional  or  decimal  part. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


263 


2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  learn  how  to 
find  a  given  per  cent  of  a  given 
number. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  give  to  the 
child  the  knowledge  and  power 
needed  to  find  any  per  cent  of  any 
number,  and  which  will  enable  him 
to  appreciate  the  arithmetical  side 
of  various  business  operations. 


2.  If  we  take  up  this  question,  who 

will  state  our  problem? 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Review  the  definition  of  a  deci- 
mal and  the  wTiting  and  reading  of 
hundredths,  pp.  68,  103-104. 

2.  Review  the  multiplication  of  a 
decimal  by  a  decimal  and  solve  prob- 
lems, pp.  106  and  178. 


3.  Review  the  elements  in  prob- 
lems in  multiplication  and  the  rela- 
tions between  them,  pp.  9  and  15. 


1.  Define  a  decimal  fraction. 
Rapid  drill  in  reading  and  writing 
decimals  in  hundredths. 

2.  How  is  one  decimal  multiplied 
by  another,  or  how  is  the  decimal 
part  of  a  number  found?  Rapid 
drill  in  finding  the  decimal  part  of  a 
number. 

3.  What  terms  arc  used  to  charac- 
terize the  elements  in  a  problem  in 
multipUcation?  What  is  the  rela- 
tion between  these  elements? 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


I.  Meaning  of  per  cent  and  its 
sign.    Exercises,  p.  202. 


2.  Conversion   of    per   cent   into 
decimal.     Exercises,   p.  203. 


3.  Meaning  of  base,  rate,  and  per- 
centage as  elements  of  problems  of 
percentage. 


4.  Find  s  %  of  $100. 


1.  Explanation  by  teacher  of 
meaning  of  per  cent  and  of  its  sign, 
and  brief  and  rapid  drill  in  reading 
per  cents. 

2.  Explanation  by  teacher  of  the 
expression  of  per  cent  in  the  form 
of  a  decimal,  and  rapid  drill  in  con- 
verting different  per  cents  into 
decimals. 

3.  Explanation  by  teacher  of 
meaning  of  base,  rate,  and  percent- 
age, and  rapid  drill  in  giving  the  base, 
rale,  and  percentage  of  different 
problems. 

4.  Lead  pupil  to  express  given  j>cr 
cent  in  form  of  decimal,  and  to  i)ro- 


264      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


Find  6%  of  $250. 
Find  7%  of  $325. 


ceed  as  in  finding  the  decimal  part  of 
a  number.  What  are  the  given 
elements  in  the  problem?  The  one 
to  find?  How  was  the  given  element 
found? 

5.  Proceed  as  in  4. 

6.  Proceed  as  in  4. 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


1.  Base  and  rate  elements  given, 
percentage  to  be  foimd. 

2.  Given  per  cent  converted  into  a 
decimd. 

3.  Percentage  found  through  pro- 
cess of  multiplication  of  decimals. 


1.  In  each  of  the  above  problems, 
what  elements  were  given?  What 
one  was  to  be  found? 

2.  In  the  solution  of  each  of  the 
above  problems,  into  what  was  the 
given  per  cent  converted? 

3.  In  the  solution  of  the  above 
problems,  when  the  given  per  cent 
was  expressed  in  form  of  a  decimal, 
how  was  the  desired  decimal  part 
foimd? 


Subject  Matter 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Method 


1.  Summary  of  common  elements 
in  problems  and  in  process. 

2.  Rule:  When  the  base  and  rate 
are  given  to  find  the  percentage, 
convert  the  given  per  cent  into  a 
decimal  and  proceed  to  find  the 
desired  decimal  part  as  in  the  multi- 
plication of  decimals. 


1.  What  are  the  common  ele- 
ments found  in  the  problems  solved 
and  in  the  process  used? 

2.  The  above  problems  are  typical 
of  all  of  their  kind.  When  the  base 
and  rate  are  given,  how  can  the  per- 
centage be  found?  Or  how  can  you 
find  any  per  cent  of  any  munber? 


Subject  Matter 


Verification  and  Use 


Method 


1.  Apply  knowledge  gained  to  an 
explanation  of  tax  rate,  interest  rate, 
insurance  rate. 

2.  Apply  knowledge  gained  to 
solution  of  problems.  Solve  prob- 
lems 1-4,  p.  204. 


I.  What  do  we  mean  by  interest 
rate?    Tax  rate?    Etc. 


2.  Solution    and    explanation 
problems  on  part  of  pupils. 


of 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  265 

The  above  is,  in  the  main,  illustrative  of  all  inductive 
conceptual  lesson  plans,  where  the  aim  is  the  gaining  of  a 
class  concept,  and  this  is  true  whether  in  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, or  other  elementary  school  subjects.  Apart  from 
arithmetic,  it  is,  however,  more  especially  illustrative  of 
lessons  in  formal  grammar. 

In  form,  it  will  be  noted  that  inductive  perceptual  and 
conceptual  lesson  plans  are  similar.  They  arc  used,  how- 
ever, somewhat  differently.  In  teaching  the  above  lesson 
in  pursuance  of  the  given  plan,  the  teacher,  at  the  end  or 
for  practical  reasons  preferably  at  the  beginning  of  a  pre- 
ceding class  period,  takes  time  to  develop  the  motive  for 
learning  how  to  find  any  per  cent  of  any  number,  and 
assigns  as  a  seat  task  and  as  preparatory  to  the  succeed- 
ing period  the  work  in  review  as  outlined  in  the  step  of 
recall. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  recitation  upon  the  given 
topic,  the  teacher  has  the  reasons  for  studying  it  and  the 
aim  of  the  lesson  restated.  He  then  advances  to  the  work 
of  recall  and  conducts  it  as  a  sharp,  rapid  review,  the 
pupils  having  made  appropriate  preparation  for  this.  The 
points  as  indicated  in  the  step  of  presentation  as  well  as  of 
elaboration  are  then  taken  up  one  by  one  and  developed, 
and  the  net  results  are  brought  together  in  the  statement 
of  the  rule  by  the  children. 

With  this  fixed  in  mind,  the  teacher  assigns  as  scat 
work  and  as  that  of  the  succeeding  recitation  the  problems 
as  indicated,  dividing  the  class  into  sections  and  holding 
each  responsible  for  the  solution  and  explanation  of  given 
problems;  the  following  period  is  then  devoted  to  the  solu- 
tion and  explanation  of  these  and  other  problems  in  view 
of  the  rule  derived. 


266       PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

LESSON  IN  READING 
Based  on  Elson's  Grammar  School  Fourth  Reader 

YUSSOUF 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 


I.  To  arouse  an  interest  in  the 
forms  of  charity  and  in  the  effects  of 
being  charitable. 


2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  learn  what 
form  of  charity  Lowell  considered 
the  highest,  and  to  learn  his  idea  of 
the  effects  of  exercising  charity. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  lead  the 
children  to  a  better  appreciation  of 
the  highest  form  of  charity  and  of 
the  effects  of  exercising  charity;  also 
to  an  understanding  and  appreciative 
reading  of  Yussouf. 


1.  What  are  some  of  the  more 
important  elements  of  character? 
Bring  out  through  thought-provok- 
ing questions  the  idea  that  charity  is 
one  of  the  most  important  virtues. 

There  are  at  least  three  forms  of 
charity:  it  finds  expression  in  alms 
giving,  in  tolerance  toward  the 
thoughts  that  others  may  have  to- 
ward us,  and  in  forgiving  acts  that 
have  been  done  against  us.  (De- 
velop through  questions  and  free 
discussion.) 

The  exercise  of  charity  not  only 
benefits  the  one  who  receives,  but 
the  one  who  gives.  (Raise  the  ques- 
tion of  the  effects  of  exercising 
charity.) 

Lowell  has  given  us  his  idea 
of  the  highest  form  of  charity  and  of 
the  effects  of  exercising  charity  in  the 
poem  Yussouf. 

2.  In  stud3dng  this  poem  what 
points  shall  we  keep  in  mind? 


THE  LESSON  PLAX 


.67 


Subject  Mailer 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Waste  or  arid  land,  at  times 
intense  heat,  and  great  storms. 
People  nomadic;  chief  need,  food 
and  shelter;  primary  virtue,  hospi- 
tality. 

2.  Gifts  of  Carnegie,  charity  of 
Lincoln,  etc. 


1.  Review  ihe  chief  characteristics 
of  the  Sahara  and  of  the  .American 
Desert;  habits,  needs,  and  virtues 
of  desert  people. 

2.  Review  known  acts  of  charity. 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


1.  Desert  land. 

2.  As  an  outcast,  "against  whose 
life  the  bow  of  power  is  bent,"  and 
as  one  who  "hath  not  where  to  lay 
his  head."  For  food  and  shelter. 
Yussouf  was  caUed  "The  Good." 

3.  "This  tent  is  mine,  but  no  more 
than  it  is  God's."  "  Come  in  and  be 
at  peace."  "Freely  shalt  thou  par- 
take of  all  my  stores  as  I  of  His." 

Shows  Yussouf  to  be  a  God-loving 
and  God-fearing  man. 

4.  "Here  is  gold,  my  swiftest 
horse  is  saddled  for  thy  flight,"  etc. 
The  stranger  was  softened  and  given 
new  light  and  hope. 

"Nobleness    enkindleth    noble- 
ness." 
Both  hospitable  and  charitable. 

5.  "That  inward  light" 
"Which      shines     from      all     self- 
conquest." 

"Unto  that  Ibrahim  who  slew 
thy  son." 
That  he  was  susceptible  to  kind- 
ness and  not  wholly  bad. 

6.  To  avenge  the  murder  of  his 
son. 


1.  Where  is  the  scene  of  this  ix)em 
laid?     Reasons? 

2.  How  did  the  stranger  feel  when 
he  came  to  Yussouf's  tent?  For 
what  did  he  come?  Why  did  he 
come? 

3.  How  did  Yussouf  feel  toward  all 
he  possessed?  What  welcome  did 
he  give  the  stranger?  How  freely 
was  the  stranger  to  partake?    Why? 

What  light  does  stanza  two  throw 
upon  the  character  of  Yussouf? 

4.  What  did  Yussouf  give  the 
stranger  on  the  morrow,  and  what 
did  he  say?  W^hat  eCfcct  did  such 
kindness  have? 

How  does  the  poet  say  that  noble- 
ness is  kindled? 

V\'hat  kind  of  a  man  is  Yussouf 
shown  to  be  in  stanza  three? 

5.  What  light  made  the  stranger's 
face  grand? 

What  confession  did  the  stranger 
make? 

What  light  does  stanza  four  throw 
upon  tlic  character  of  the  stranger? 

6.  What  was  the  one  black 
thought  of  Yussouf? 


268      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


"Take  thrice  the  gold  for  with 
thee,"  etc. 

By  forgiving  and  making  a  better 
man  of  the  murderer. 

"  Balanced  and  just  are  all  of  God's 
decrees." 

Not  wholly  good. 

Made  stranger  a  better  and  nobler 


How  did  the  confession  of  the 
stranger  affect  Yussouf? 

How  did  Yussouf  avenge  his  son? 

How  did  such  a  vengeance  make 
Yussouf  feel  toward  God? 

What  light  does  stanza  five  throw 
upon  the  character  of  Yussouf? 

What  effect  do  you  think  such 
vengeance  had  upon  the  stranger? 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


I.  Yussouf 's  charity  even  greater. 


2.  On  coming,  the  stranger  felt  as 
a  refugee  against  whom  the  bow  of 
power  was  bent;  on  leaving  he  was 
at  peace  with  himself,  with  his  fellow- 
men,  and  with  God. 

3.  Before  the  stranger  came  Yus- 
souf was  not  at  peace;  when  the 
stranger  left,  he  was  at  peace  with 
himself,  with  his  fellowmen  and  with 
God. 

4.  Both  were  made  better  and 
nobler  men. 

5.  Yussouf  exercised  the  highest 
form  of  charity  in  forgiving  Ibrahim. 


1.  Contrast  Yussouf 's  hospitahty 
with  the  public  gifts  of  Carnegie,  his 
forgiveness  of  the  stranger  with 
charity  of  Lincoln  toward  his  critics 
and  the  South. 

2.  Contrast  the  feeling  of  the 
stranger  on  coming  to  Yussouf  and 
on  leaving  him. 


3.  Contrast  the  feeling  of  Yussouf 
before  the  stranger  came  and  when 
he  left. 


4.  Compare  the  effects  of  Yus- 
souf *s  charity  upon  the  stranger  and 
upon  himself. 

5.  Contrast  the  different  acts  of 
Yussouf.  In  which  did  he  exercise 
the  highest  form  of  charity?     Why? 


Subject  Matter 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Method 


I.  The  highest  form  of  charity  is 
forgiving  the  evil  acts  of  others 
toward  us.  Charity  not  only  makes 
better  the  one  exercising  it,  but  also 
makes  better  the  one  toward  whom 
it  is  shown. 


I.  What,  then,  is  the  highest  form 
of  charity?  What  effects  does  the 
exercise  of  charity  have  upon  the  one 
exercising  it  and  upon  the  one  receiv- 
ing it? 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  269 


Subject  Matter  Verification  and  Use  Method 

1.  Viewing  known  charitable  acts  i.  Guide  and  direct  children  in 
in  light  of  this  conclusion:  founding  verifying  the  truth  of  this  conclusioD. 
of   hospitals,    free   public    libraries. 

Analysis  of  effects  of  charitable  acts 
of  children:  coUecting  clothing  and 
flowers  for  Thanksgiving  donations, 
Decoration  Day,  etc. 

2.  Making  conception  gained  real  2.  Guide  and  direct  children  in 
in  daily  actions  of  children.  application  of  the  conception  gained 

to  daily  actions. 

3.  Application  of  ideas  and  appre-  3.  Guide  and  direct  children  in 
elation  acquired  in  the  oral  reading    oral  reading  of  poem. 

of  Yussouf. 


To  teach  the  poem  "Yussouf"  according  to  the  above 
plan,  the  teacher,  at  the  end  and  preferably  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  preceding  recitation,  seeks  to  stimulate  the 
desire  and  to  fix  the  object  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  study 
of  the  poem.  With  the  desire  aroused  and  the  aim  deter- 
mined, he  assigns  the  work  as  outUned  in  the  step  of  recall. 
This  is  given  by  topics;  for  example,  the  habits  of  desert 
people;  these  are  remembered  and  by  older  children 
copied  into  their  notebooks,  and  become  points  for  re- 
view. In  like  manner  the  work  as  indicated  in  the  step 
of  presentation  is  assigned  topic  by  topic,  and  the  children 
are  expected  to  study  the  poem  with  reference  to  each  of 
these,  to  reflect  upon  and  be  ready  to  discuss  them.  Such 
would  be  the  assignment  of  the  first  lesson  and  the  seat 
or  home  task  of  the  children. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  next  period,  the  teacher  has 
the  aim  of  the  study  restated  and  proceeds  to  the  work  of 
recall.  This  is  taken  up  topic  by  topic  and  the  desired 
information  brought  to  mind.     With  this  done,  advance 


270      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

is  made  to  the  step  of  presentation,  and  through  the  use 
of  the  pivotal  questions  formulated  and  others  improvised, 
through  free  yet  directed  discussion  of  the  pupils,  the 
points  of  the  poem  as  outlined  in  this  step  are  brought  out 
one  by  one.  In  a  similar  way  the  teacher  proceeds  to 
develop  the  larger  underlying  thoughts  of  the  poem  as 
indicated  in  the  plan  for  the  step  of  elaboration.  At 
times  the  thoughts  to  be  made  clear  in  this  step  may  be 
given  as  points  for  study  along  with  the  assignment  made 
in  connection  with  the  steps  of  recall  and  presentation, 
but  as  a  rule  it  is  preferable  to  leave  these  to  be  developed 
in  the  class,  after  the  teacher  has  made  sure  that  the 
pupils  are  in  a  position  to  make  the  necessary  comparisons 
and  to  draw  the  desired  conclusions.  With  the  larger 
thoughts  of  the  poem  thoroughly  comprehended,  the 
teacher  leads  the  children  to  bring  these  together  into 
one  connected  whole  or  generalization,  and  directs  them 
in  making  the  desired  appHcation  of  the  truth  attained. 
With  the  children  in  possession  of  its  central  thought  and 
with  a  greater  or  less  appreciation  of  its  beauty  and  atmos- 
phere, the  teacher  assigns,  as  seat  or  home  work,  the  task 
of  studying  the  poem  with  reference  to  oral  expression; 
and  reading  it  with  appreciation  constitutes  the  work  of 
the  final  recitation. 

The  above  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  inductive  concep- 
tual lesson  plans  for  the  teaching  of  literature  in  all  the 
grammar  grades.  The  teaching  of  hterature  in  pursuance 
of  such  a  plan  throws  the  emphasis,  as  is  readily  seen, 
upon  the  getting  of  thought  and  feeling  and  upon  the 
development  of  appreciation;  whereas  reading  as  an  exer- 
cise in  oral  expression  is  given  a  minor  place.  Instruction 
in  pursuance  of  such  a  plan  involves  two  distinct,  though 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  271 

related,  considerations  of  a  given  selection.  The  first  of 
these  may  be  termed  the  silent  study,  that  is,  the  study 
of  the  selection  to  gain  the  thought  and  to  get  into  its 
spirit  and  atmosphere  —  in  short,  to  gain  an  appreciation 
of  the  selection  as  literature.  The  second  follows  and  may 
be  termed  the  oral  study,  that  is,  a  study  of  the  selec- 
tion with  a  view  to  giving  appropriate  expression  to  the 
thoughts  and  feelings  embodied  therein.  Thus  to  teach 
the  reading  of  the  grades  would  change  the  present  point 
of  emphasis  and  the  present  method  of  procedure.  How- 
ever that  may  be,  the  above  method  is  the  one  that  must 
be  pursued,  at  least  with  worthy  selections,  if  the  reading 
of  the  grades  is  to  contribute  its  just  share  to  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  aim  of  elementary  education,  if  it  is  to  be 
brought  into  conformity  with  inductive  conceptual  learn- 
ing and  made  to  comply  with  our  best  views  upon  the 
psychology  of  expression. 

LESSON  IN   HISTORY 

Based  on  Thompson's  Uistory  of  the  United  States 

Plymouth  Colony 

Deveujpment  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  .Aim 
Subject  Matter  MfthoJ 

I.  To  arouse  the  desire  to  learn  i.  Where  is  Plymouth  Rock  and 

more  about  the  life,  character,  and  why  is  it  so  famous?  What  was  the 
ideals  of  the  early  Puritans.  Mayflower  and  why  is  it  so  nolc<i? 

From  whom  did  we  RCt  the  custom  of 
observing  ThanksfiivinK  Day?  What 
is  meant  by  bcinn  Puritanic?  From 
whence  came  the  ConRrcRational 
Church?  Our  idea  of  the  lown- 
meeling?  Our  conception  of  Sab- 
bath observance?  We  should  be 
able  to  answer  these  questions  more 


272      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  study  the 
founding  and  development  of  the 
Plymouth  Colony  in  order  to  learn 
more  about  the  life,  character,  and 
ideals  of  the  early  Puritans. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  lead  the 
pupils  to  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
the  life,  character,  and  ideals  of  the 
early  Puritans  in  order  to  lay  the 
foundation  for  an  appreciation  of 
American  Ufe  and  ideals. 


intelUgently,  if  wc  knew  more  about 
the  life,  character,  and  ideals  of  the 
early  Puritans. 

2.  We  can  learn  about  them  best 
through  a  study  of  the  Pl3Tnouth 
Colony.  If  we  study  the  founding 
and  development  of  this  colony, 
how  may  our  primary  object  be 
stated? 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Review  motive  for  settlement 
of  Virginia.     §§  48,  50,  52. 

2.  Review  character  of  Jamestown 
settlers.    §§  52,  55,  61,  67. 

3.  Review     hardships     of     early 
settlers.     §§  52,  54,  57,  63. 

4.  Review  form  of  government  in 
1619.    §  60. 

;     5.  Review  religious  life  of  James- 
town settlers.     §§  65,  71. 


1.  What  were  the  motives  leading 
to  the  settlement  of  Virginia? 

2.  What  was  the  character  of  the 
early  settlers  of  Jamestown? 

3.  Describe  the  hardships  of  the 
early  settlers  of  Virginia. 

4.  What  were  the  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  government  of  Virginia 
in  1619. 

5.  Characterize  the  religious  life 
of  the  early  Virginians. 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


1.  Rehgious  conditions  in  England 
in  reign  of  James  I.     §  67. 

2.  The  Separatists.     §  107. 

3.  Escape    to    HoUand    and    life 
there.    §  107. 

4.  Reasons    for   leaving   Holland 
and  for  coming  to  America.     §  107. 

5.  Conditions  under  which  they 
came  to  America.    §  108. 


1.  What  were  the  religious  condi- 
tions in  England  in  the  reign  of 
James  I? 

2.  Characterize  the  religious  posi- 
tion of  the  Separatists. 

3.  Why  did  the  Pilgrims  go  to 
Holland?    Describe  their  life  there. 

4.  Why  did  the  Pilgrims  leave 
Holland?  Why  did  they  come  to 
America? 

5.  What  were  the  conditions  under 
which  the  Puritans  came  to  America? 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


273 


6.  The  character  of  the  settlers. 
}  107, 108. 

7.  The  Mayflower  Compact.  §  109. 


8.  Settlement  and  hardships.    §§ 
no,  III,  112,  114. 

9.  Form  of  goverrmient  and  politi- 
cal life.     §§  113,  118. 

10.  Form  of  rehgion  and  religious 
life.     §§117,118. 

11.  Union  with  Massachusetts  Col- 
ony.    §  113. 


6.  WTiat  was  the  character  of  the 
Puritan  settlers? 

7.  What  are  the  more  essential 
points  of  the  Mayflower  Comiiact 
and  what  is  its  significance? 

8.  Describe  the  settlement  and 
hardships  of  the  Pilgrims. 

9.  Characterize  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  describe  the  political 
life  of  the  early  Puritans. 

10.  Characterize  their  form  of  reli- 
gion and  describe  their  religious  life. 

11.  Reasons  for  uniting  Plj-moulh 
Colony  with  Massachusetts  Colony? 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


1.  Motives  of  Virginians,  eco- 
nomic, of  Puritans,  political  and 
religious. 

2.  Virginians  adventurous,  wealth- 
seeking;  Puritans  God-fearing, 
liberty-loving. 

3.  Hardships  of  Pilgrims  as  great 
as  those  of  Virginians. 

4.  Government  of  Pilgrims  even 
more    democratic     than     that    of 

Virginians. 

5.  Religion  of  Pilgrims,  Congre- 
gational, of  Virginians,  Episcopal; 
heart  and  center  of  Puritan  life, 
minor  matter  to  Virginians. 


1.  Contrast  the  motives  of  the 
early  Virginians  with  those  of  the 
early  Pilgrims  for  making  settlement. 

2.  Contrast  the  character  of  the 
early  Virginians  with  that  of  the 
early  Pilgrims. 

3.  Which  suflcrcd  the  greater 
hardships,  the  early  \'irginians  or 
early  Puritans? 

4.  Compare  the  political  life  and 
ideals  of  the  early  Virginians  and  the 
early  Puritans  with  reference  to 
democracy  and  place  in  life. 

5.  Contrast  the  religious  life  of 
early  Virginians  and  Puritans  and 
the  pbce  of  reUgion  in  the  life  of  each. 


Subject  Matter 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Method 


I.  Summary  of  main  points  with 
reference  to  motives  for  settlement, 
the  life,  the  poUtical  and  religious 
ideals  of  the  Puritans. 


I.  Give  a  summary  of  the  chief 
thoughts  gained  with  reference  to  the 
motives  for  settlement,  the  life, 
the  political  and  religious  ideals  of 

the  Puriliins. 


274      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

Subject  Matter  Verification  and  Use  Method 

1.  Apply  knowledge  gained  to  the  i.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  Con- 
explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  Con-  gregational  Church.  Explain  the 
gregational  Church,  town-meeting,  existence  of  our  present  town-meet- 
ideas  of  democratic  government,  ing.  To  what  extent  has  the  Puritan 
Sabbath  observance,  etc.  conception  of  Sabbath  observation 

influenced  our  own  ideas? 

2.  Apply  knowledge  gained  to  2.  Guide  and  direct  the  reading  of 
reading,  as  collateral  work.  The  the  selections  suggested,  as  well  as 
Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  The  Pilgrim  others,  that  the  children  may  utilize 
Fathers,  Miles  Standish,  etc.                 the  knowledge  gained  in  reading  and 

understanding  these,  and  may  obtain 
thereby  further  insight  into  the  life, 
character,  and  ideals  of  the  Puritans. 


The  foregoing  inductive  conceptual  lesson  plan  in  his- 
tory is  similar  to  the  corresponding  one  in  Uterature  and 
is  used  much  in  the  same  manner.  The  teacher  develops 
the  motive  and  leads  the  pupils  to  a  statement  of  the  aim. 
He  then  assigns  to  the  class  as  a  whole,  for  seat  or  home 
study,  the  work  as  outHned  in  the  steps  of  recall  and  pres- 
entation; individual  pupils  may  make  reports  on  special 
topics.  The  children  use  their  texts  and  the  materials 
suggested  in  making  the  reviews  indicated  and  in  acquiring 
the  desired  facts.  This  assignment  is  gone  over  point  by 
point  in  the  succeeding  period  and  the  special  reports 
heard.  With  the  reviews  made  —  which  supply  a  partial 
basis  of  interpretation  —  and  with  the  needed  facts  fixed 
clearly  in  mind,  the  teacher  seeks,  in  the  same  or  following 
period,  through  the  use  of  problem-setting  questions,  to 
bring  out  the  significance  of  the  given  materials;  he  directs 
the  children  in  bringing  the  more  important  aspects  of  their 
meaning  into  a  thought-whole  and  guides  them  in  applying 
the  insights  gained  to  the  explanation  and  interpretation 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  275 

of  present  social  conditions  and  problems.  As  suggested 
in  connection  with  the  plan  in  Uterature,  assignment  may 
be  made  of  the  work  as  prescribed  for  the  steps  of  elabora- 
tion, synthesis,  and  application,  and  the  pupils  may  be 
required  to  prepare  to  recite  upon  it.  As  a  rule,  however, 
it  will  be  found  best  to  leave  this  to  be  done  in  the  class. 
The  above  plan  is  not  only  t>pical  of  inductive  con- 
ceptual lessons  in  history,  but  illustrates  equally  well  like 
lessons  in  geography,  where  the  object  is  the  development 
of  an  individual  concept  —  for  example,  of  wheat  raising 
in  North  Dakota,  of  stock  raising  in  Texas,  or  of  the 
climate  of  the  Central  States.  Such  geography  lessons  are 
not  only  similarly  planned  —  barring  the  difference  in  the 
nature  of  the  subject  matter  —  but  also  similarly  used. 

§  6.  Illustrative  Deductive  Conceptual  Lesson  Plans 
lesson  in  grammar 

Based  on  Hyde's  Two-Book  Course  in  English,  Book  Two 

The  Noun  Clause  and  Its  Uses 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter  Method 

1.  To  arouse  the  desire  to  know  i.  We  have  learned  to  define  the 
the  different  kinds  of  clauses  and  clause  as  a  "division  of  a  sentence 
how  each  is  used.                                      containing  a  verb  with  its  subject." 

There  are  various  kinds  of  clauses, 
each  having  its  distinct  function  in 
language,  and  skill  in  their  use  implies 
a  knowledge  of  each  kind.  That  you 
may  gain  this  knowledge  and  skill, 
we  shall  take  up  the  study  of  the 
different  kinds  of  clauses. 

2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  learn  about  the  :;.  The  subject  as  a  whole  Ls  too 
noun  clause  and  how  it  is  used.               large  for  one  lesson,  so  wc  will  begin 

3.  Teacher's  .\im:    To  bring  the      wiiii  the  noun  clause. 


276      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

pupils  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
character  and  function  of  the  noun 
clause. 


Subject  Matter 


Presentation 


Method 


1.  "That  such  men  should  give 
prejudicial  views  of  America  is  not  a 
matter  of  surprise."  "That  man 
is  more  than  mortal  is  true." 

2.  "I  confess  these  stories,  for  a 
time,  put  an  end  to  my  fancies."  "I 
am  aware  that  a  skillful  illustrator 
of  the  immortal  bard  would  have 
swelled  the  materials." 

3.  "The  terms  of  admission  to  this 
spectacle  are,  that  he  have  a  certain 
solid  and  inteUigible  way  of  Uving." 
"The  true  sign  of  character  is,  that  a 
man  live  as  he  preaches." 

4.  "Cecil's  saying  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  'I  know  that  he  can  toil 
terribly,'  is  an  electric  touch."  "The 
slogan  of  the  American  Revolution — 
life,  liberty,  and  the  pm-suit  of  happi- 
ness are  the  unalienable  rights  of 
man  —  has  circled  the  world." 

5.  "At  length  he  reached  to  where 
the  ravine  had  opened  through  the 
cliff."  "The  army  pushed  forward 
to  where  the  EngUsh  had  previously 
camped." 


1.  These  sentences,  as  well  as  the 
following,  are  to  be  written  upon  the 
blackboard  in  full  view  of  the  class. 
What  is  the  clause  in  the  first  sen- 
tence?    In  the  second? 

2.  Proceed  here  and  in  the  follow- 
ing as  in  I. 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Review  definition  of  a  noun, 
p.  9. 

2.  Review  uses  of  nouns: 

a.  As  subject  of  verb,  pp.  46, 
183-184. 

b.  As  object  of  verb,  pp.  46, 
189-190. 


1.  Define  a  noun  and  give  illustra- 
tions. 

2.  Illustrate  the  use  of  a  noun  as 
subject  of  a  verb,  as  object  of  a  verb, 
as  complement,  in  apposition,  as 
object  of  a  preposition. 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


277 


c.  Ascomplement,  pp.  105-106, 
184-185. 

d.  In  apposition,  pp.  185-186. 

e.  As    object    of    preposition, 
pp.  46,  1 90-191. 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


Use  of  noun  clause  as  subject  of 


varb. 


2.  Use  as  object  of  verb. 

3.  Use  as  complement. 

4.  Use  in  apposition. 

5.  Use  as  object  of  preposition. 


1.  In  the  first  group  of  sentences, 
how  are  the  clauses  used  or  what 
function  do  they  perform?  Con- 
trast this  use  with  that  of  the  noun 
as  subject  of  verb.  What  is  one  use 
of  this  kind  of  a  clause? 

2.  Proceed  here  and  in  the  follow- 
ing as  in  I. 


Subject  Matter 


Synthesis  and  Inference 


Mdhod 


I .  Definition  of  noun  clause. 


2.  Uses  of  noun  clauses. 


1 .  What  is  the  common  character- 
istic of  the  above  clauses?  These 
are  typical  of  noun  clauses.  Define 
a  noun  clause. 

2.  What  are  the  didercnt  uses  of 
the  above  clauses?  These  are  illus- 
trative of  the  more  imjxjrlant  uses 
of  the  noun  clause.  In  what  ways, 
then,  are  noun  clauses  used? 


Subject  Matter 


Verification  and  Use 


Method 


1.  Verification  of  definition  and 
uses  of  noun  clause,  as  deduced, 
p.  239. 

2.  Selection  and  designation  of 
noun  clauses  in  sentences.  Sentences 
pp.  240-242. 

3.  Writing  sentences  by  cliildrcn 
illustrating  uses  of  noun  clause. 


1.  Study  definition  and  uses  as 
given,  compare  with  results  obtained, 
and  correct  where  necessary. 

2.  Select  the  noun  clause  in  the 
first  sentence  and  tell  how  it  is  used. 
Etc. 

3.  Read  your  first  sentence,  give 
the  noun  clause,  anil  tell  how  il  is 
used.     Etc. 


278      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

To  teach  this  lesson  as  planned,  the  teacher,  at  the  end 
or  at  the  beginning  of  a  previous  period,  develops  the 
motive  for  the  study  and  has  the  aim  of  the  lesson  formu- 
lated. As  seat  or  home  work,  he  then  assigns  the  reviews 
as  indicated  in  the  step  of  recall.  On  the  following  day, 
after  having  the  aim  restated,  he  proceeds  to  have  the 
children  pick  out  the  clauses  in  the  sentences  as  given 
under  subject  matter  in  the  step  of  presentation.  These 
sentences  as  suggested  are  to  be  written  in  full  view  of  the 
school.  With  the  clauses  in  these  determined,  the  teacher 
takes  up  the  reviews  as  assigned.  With  the  facts  to  be 
given  meaning  presented  and  the  basis  of  this  brought  to 
the  mind  of  the  pupil,  he  proceeds  to  deduce  point  by 
point,  as  indicated  in  the  step  of  elaboration,  the  different 
uses  of  the  noun  clause.  After  this  is  done,  the  results  are 
drawn  together,  as  the  work  of  the  step  of  synthesis  and 
inference,  into  a  formal  statement  and  these  conclusions 
verified  through  a  comparison  with  the  text.  At  the  end 
of  this  period,  there  is  assigned  as  seat  or  home  work  the 
task  of  picking  out  the  clauses  in  given  sentences,  of 
determining  their  use,  and  of  writing  other  sentences. 
The  second  recitation  is  then  devoted  to  restating,  as  cor- 
rected, the  conclusions  attained  in  the  previous  period, 
and  to  characterizing  the  use  of  the  clauses  in  the  sen- 
tences assigned  and  in  those  written  by  the  children. 

This  deductive  conceptual  lesson  plan  not  only  illustrates 
how  such  lessons  in  grammar  are  to  be  planned  and  taught, 
but  it  is  also  typical  — •  barring  slight  variations  arising 
from  differences  in  content  —  of  similar  ones  in  arithmetic. 
Of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  public  school,  these  two  afford 
the  widest  range  for  the  use  of  the  deductive  conceptual 
method  of  instruction,  and  nothing  else  would  so  improve 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


279 


the  present  teaching  of  these  branches  as  to  make  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  it  deductive  in  spirit  and  in  truth. 


LESSON  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

Based  on  Tarr  and  McMurry's  Complete  Geography 

R/VENTALL   OF   THE   WESTERN   STATES 


Development  of  Motive  and  Statement  of  Aim 
Subject  Matter 


Method 


I.  To  arouse  a  desire  to  learn 
about  the  rainfall  of  the  Western 
States. 


2.  Pupil's  Aim:  To  study  about 
the  rainfall  of  the  Western  States  in 
order  to  see  why  the  country  between 
the  Cascade,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains  is  so  hke  a  desert. 

3.  Teacher's  Aim:  To  bring  the 
children  to  a  knowledge  of  the  rain- 
fall of  the  Western  States  that  they 
may  be  able  to  appreciate  the  dif- 
ferences in  climate,  in  industries, 
and  in  life. 


1.  What  do  we  mean  by  the  .Vmcr- 
ican  Desert?  Where  is  it?  Why  is 
the  country  between  the  Cascade, 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains  so  desert-like?  Why  so 
little  rain?  The  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion necessitates  a  study  of  the  rain- 
fall of  the  Western  States. 

2.  If  we  take  up  this  topic,  how 
may  your  aim  be  stated? 


Subject  Matter 


PKESii.NTATlON 


MdhiHi 


1 .  Proximity  of  Western  States  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean.     Fig.  131. 

2.  Principal  mountain  ranges  and 
highest  altitude.  Fig.  131;  Appen- 
dix, p.  ix. 

3.  Principal  plateaus  and  alti- 
tudes. Fig.  131,  43;  Appendix,  p.  ix. 


1.  Ur)on  what  ocean  do  the  West- 
ern States  border? 

2.  Name  and  locate  the  princi(xil 
mountain  ranges  of  this  section  and 
give  their  highest  altitude. 

3.  What  arc  the  principal  plateaus 
of  lliis  section  and  what  is  the  alti- 
tude of  each? 


28o      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


4.  Prevailing  direction  of  winds  on 
north  Pacific  side  and  on  south 
Pacific  side.     Fig.  249,  254. 

5.  Breadth  of  section.     Fig.  131. 


4.  What  is  the  prevailing  direction 
of  wind  on  north  Pacific  side?  On 
south  Pacific  side? 

5.  What  is  the  breadth  of  this 
section  on  the  north?    On  the  south? 


Subject  Matter 


Recall 


Method 


1.  Review  of  general  conditions 
determining  rainfall:  proximity  to 
ocean,  altitude,  prevailing  direction 
of  winds,  pp.  220-221. 

2.  General  conditions  of  heavy, 
moderate,  light,  and  scant  rainfall. 


I .  What  are  the  general  conditions 
determining  rainfall? 


2.  What  are  the  general  conditions 
of  heavy  rainfall?  Of  moderate? 
Of  light?     Of  scant? 


Subject  Matter 


Elaboration 


Method 


1.  Heavy  rainfall  on  northern 
coast  as  effect  of  proximity  to  ocean 
and  prevailing  direction  of  wind. 


2.  Moderate  and  light  rainfall  in 
interior  of  northern  section  as  effect 
of  distance  from  ocean,  altitude,  and 
prevailing  direction  of  winds. 

3.  Moderate  rainfall  upon  south- 
ern coast  as  effect  of  proximity  to 
ocean  and  prevailing  direction  of 
winds. 

4.  Light  and  scant  rainfall  in  in- 
terior of  southern  section  as  effect  of 
distance  from  ocean,  altitude,  and 
prevailing  direction  of  winds. 


5.  Direction  of  prevailing  winds  as 
chief  cause  of  differences  in  rainfall. 


1.  Contrast  the  conditions  on  the 
northern  coast  vnth  those  essential 
to  heavy  rainfall.  In  view  of  the 
essential  similarity,  what  must  be 
the  nature  of  the  rainfall? 

2.  Contrast  the  conditions  in  the 
interior  of  northern  section  with 
those  of  moderate  and  light  rainfall. 
In  view  of  the  similarity,  what  must 
be  the  character  of  the  rainfall? 

3.  Contrast  conditions  on  southern 
coast  with  those  impHed  in  moderate 
rainfall.  What  must  be  its  charac- 
ter there? 

4.  Contrast  the  conditions  as 
found  in  the  interior  of  southern 
section  with  those  of  Hght  and  scant 
rainfall.  In  view  of  similarity, 
what  must  be  the  rainfall  of  this 
section? 

5.  What  is  the  chief  cause  of  the 
difference  in  the  rainfall  of  north  and 
south  coast  sections?  Of  north  and 
south  interior  sections? 


THE  LESSON  PL.\N  281 


Subject  Mailer  Synthesis  and  Inference  Method 

I.  Summary  of  deductions    with  i.  In  view  of  proximity  to  ocean, 

reference    to    rainfall    in    Western     pre\ailing  direction  of  winds,  and 
States.  altitude,  characterize  the  rainfall  of 

different   sections   of    the   Western 
States. 

Subject  Matter  \' erieication  and  Use  Mitliod 

1.  Verification  of  deductions  i.  Reading  or  study  of  authorita- 
through  study  of  facts  as  given  in  tive  facts  and  a  comparison  of  these 
text.     Fig.  252;   pp.  133-135.                 with  those  derived  through  dc<luc- 

tion,  and  the  correction  of  inferences 
where  necessary. 

2.  Explanation  of  the  American  2.  Why  is  the  country  between  the 
Desert.                                                     Cascade,  Sierra  Nevada,  and  Rocky 

Mountains  so  desert-like? 

3.  Use  of  insights  gained  in  future 
explanations  of  climate,  industries, 
and  life  of  Western  States. 


In  view  of  our  discussion  of  how  to  use  the  deductive 
conceptual  lesson  plan  in  grammar,  only  an  additional 
word  with  reference  to  its  use  is  needed  here.  In  the 
grammar  lesson,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  facts  to  be 
given  meaning  were  brought  to  the  pupils  by  the  teacher, 
and  this  is  to  a  large  extent  true  also  in  similar  lessons  in 
arithmetic.  In  this  mode  of  instruction  in  geography, 
and  in  so  far  as  it  is  applicable  to  history,  it  will  be  found 
preferable,  as  a  rule,  to  let  the  pupils  gather  the  facts  for 
themselves,  either  through  direct  observation  or  from  the 
printed  page.  Just  those  to  be  acquired  in  a  given  case 
may  be  determined  by  the  class  as  a  class  exercise,  or  they 
may,  where  this  seems  best,  be  indicated  by  the  teacher  as 
a  part  of  the  assignment,  and  their  acquisition  forms  — 
along  with  the  review  as  indicated  in  the  step  of  recall  — 


282      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

the  seat  or  home  work.  In  teaching  the  lesson,  the  teacher 
then  follows  the  plan  step  by  step  and  point  by  point,  and 
the  treatment  of  a  topic  such  as  the  above  need  not  con- 
sume more  than  one  recitation. 

§  7.  Lesson  Plans  Abridged  and  UNABRrocED 

The  above  lesson  plans  cover,  it  will  be  observed,  the 
gamut  of  the  more  important  branches  in  the  elementary 
school.  By  using  these  as  types,  it  may  readily  be  inferred 
how  a  lesson  in  a  subject  in  which  an  illustrative  lesson 
is  not  given  may  be  planned  and  this  plan  used.  It  will 
also  be  observed  that  the  above  plans  are  based  upon 
texts  now  in  use  in  our  schools  and  upon  the  subject  matter 
as  found  in  them.  For  this  reason  they  are  more  truly 
illustrative  of  how  lessons  in  actual  school  subjects  are  to 
be  planned  and  presented,  if  teaching  in  the  elementary 
school  is  to  be  brought  into  conformity  with  the  different 
general  methods  of  elementary  instruction. 

Each  step  in  the  above  plans  rests,  as  will  be  noted, 
upon  a  given  step  in  the  corresponding  general  method. 
Like  the  learning  processes  and  like  the  general  methods 
derived  from  these  processes,  the  lesson  plan  may  be 
abridged  —  that  is,  the  work  of  elaboration  may  be  planned 
to  be  done  in  connection  with  the  step  of  presentation  and 
vice  versa;  or,  the  work  of  the  step  of  recall,  or  of  inference 
and  synthesis,  may  be  omitted.  Just  the  abridgment  that 
may  well  be  made  in  a  given  plan  and  consequently  in  the 
presentation  of  a  given  lesson  depends  upon  the  child  and 
upon  what  is  being  taught.  As  a  rule,  however,  if  the 
lesson  is  difficult,  teaching  is  most  effective  when  the  plan 
is  unabridged  —  that  is,  when  provision  is  made  for  the 
work  of  each  step  as  conditioned  by  the  given  general 


THE  LESSON  PLAN  -S3 

method,  and  when  the  lesson  is  taught  step  by  step  and 
point  by  point  as  planned. 

Readings 

Charters,  Methods  of  Teaching,  pp.  415-434. 
Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching,  pp.  220-263. 
McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitation,  pp.  257-287. 
Strayer,  The  Teaching  Process,  pp.  167-223. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL 

1.  Education  is  a  function  of  society,  and  the  educational 
system  of  a  given  society  must  be  such  as  mill  provide  for  its 
existence,  development,  and  perfection. 

2.  That  system  of  education  which  provides  for  the  exist- 
ence, development,  and  perfection  of  a  given  society  is  at  the 
same  time  the  system  which  will  provide  for  the  highest  mode 
of  life,  the  highest  development  and  self-realization  of  its 
members. 

3 .  The  giving  of  appropriate  expression,  control,  and  direc- 
tion to  the  will,  or  the  development  of  the  will,  constitutes  the 
primary  work  of  education,  the  end  to  which  every  phase  of  it 
must  contribute  and  be  subordinated. 

4.  The  development  of  the  intellect  is  the  secondary  work 
of  education,  and  the  intellect  must  be  so  developed  with  respect 
to  both  form  and  content  and  only  so  developed  as  to  give  the 
will  the  necessary  expression  and  the  desired  determi- 
nation. 

5.  Education  must  seek,  in  each  period  of  child  life,  to 
give  to  the  will  that  expression  and  determination  and  to  the 
intellect  that  form  and  content  appropriate  to  the  development 
of  the  distinctive  will  and  intellectual  characteristics  of  the 
period,  appropriate  to  secure  a  normal  will  and  intellectual 
development  in  the  succeeding  one,  and  appropriate  to  secure 
the  will  and  intellectual  development  desired. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  285 

§  I.  The  Problem 

The  second  means  through  which  the  aim  of  education 
is  realized  is  school  organization.  As  a  problem,  the 
organization  of  the  school  is  a  difficult  one.  and  its  solu- 
tion, even  were  we  able  to  solve  it,  would  carry  us  far 
afield.  For  our  purpose,  it  may  be  restricted  and  stated 
thus:  In  view  of  the  aim  and  principles  of  elementary  edu- 
cation, what  are  the  factors  entering  in  to  condition  the 
organization  of  the  elementary  school,  and  in  what  ways 
is  this  determined  by  each? 

§  2,  Factors  Conditioning  the  Org.\nization  of  the 
Elementary  School 

The  first  of  these  factors  is  the  child.  The  child  is  a 
factor  because  he  is  the  subject  of  education  and  it  is  in 
his  life  that  its  aim  is  to  be  realized.  Society  is  another 
factor^  because  social  needs  and  ends  are  conserved  l)y 
education  and  it  is  in  the  life  of  the  social  whole  that  the 
purposes  of  the  school  are  to  be  actualized.  Instruction 
is  a  third,  because  it  is  the  primary  means  through  which 
educational  work  is  accomplished. 

Although  the  child,  society,  and  instruction  arc  factors 
in  conditioning  the  organization  of  the  elementary  school, 
the  primary  factor  is  the  given  aim  of  elementary  education. 
It  is  in  the  light  of  this  that  every  part  of  school  organiza- 
tion should  be  tested;  it  is  this  that  should  give  meaning 
and  unity  to  its  every  portion.  Indeed  the  chili),  sixicty. 
and  instruction  are  conditioning  factors  therein  only  in 
so  far  as  they  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  attainment 
of  the  purposes  of  the  elementary  school. 


286      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


§  3.  The  Child  as  a  Factor 

The  claims  of  the  child  upon  the  organization  of  elemen- 
tary education  may  be  divided  into  those  imposed  by  his 
physical  and  those  imposed  by  his  psychical  nature.  Al- 
though these  claims  are  not  to  be  viewed  as  separate,  for 
purposes  of  clearness  it  is  well  to  consider  them  apart. 
,  I.  Claims  Imposed  by  Physical  Nature  and  Implica- 
vions.  —  The  claims  registered  by  the  physical  nature  of 
the  child,  in  view  of  the  first  two  of  the  above  principles, 
is  that  the  school  be  so  organized  as  to  conserve  his  health 
and  foster  his  physical  development  as  conditioned  by  the 
working  aim  of  the  given  elementary  school. 

This  claim  has  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  been  ignored; 
but  with  the  growing  appreciation  of  the  value  of  health, 
with  the  increasing  demands  of  modern  life  upon  it,  with 
greater  insight  into  the  relation  between  health  and  physi- 
cal development,  and  between  these  and  intellectual  work 
and  psychical  development,  more  and  more  pressing  has 
grown  the  demand  that  health  receive  consideration. 

In  view  of  this  claim  and  in  view  of  what  is  implied 
in  satisfying  it,  there  have  arisen  three  distinct  problems: 
the  hygiene  of  the  school  plant,  of  instruction,  and  of  the 
child. 

Under  the  problem  of  the  hygiene^  of  the  school  plant 
are  to  be  included  questions  of  temperature,  heating, 
lighting,  ventilation,  construction,  and  care  of  school 
buildings,  also  the  hygiene  of  school  furniture,  apparatus, 
and  fixtures  —  in  short,  all  that  has  to  do  with  the  material 
make-up  and  environment  of  the  school  in  so  far  as  this 
affects  the  physical  well-being  of  children. 

With  the  problem  of  the  hygiene  of  instruction  are  to 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  287 

be  associated  questions  such  as  the  length  of  the  school 
year,  of  the  school  day,  of  the  recitation  period,  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  daily  program,  home  study,  the  hygiene 
of  the  different  school  subjects,  the  length  and  distribution 
of  recesses,  —  in  a  word,  questions  arising  in  connection 
with  instruction  having  to  do  with  health  and  physical 
welfare. 

To  the  problem  of  the  hygiene  of  the  pupil  there  belong 
questions  with  reference  to  the  defects  and  care  of  the 
teeth  and  of  the  sense  organs,  problems  of  normal  and 
arrested  developm.ent,  of  habits  of  posture  and  of  move- 
ment, of  personal  habits,  exercise,  food,  clothing,  and  of 
the  diseases  of  children.  Of  the  questions  injected  of  late 
into  school  organization,  none  have  been  studied  more 
carefully  and  with  better  results  than  these.  Such  ques- 
tions have  not  been  taken  up,  however,  merely  because  of 
scientific  interest  or  with  the  intent  of  making  a  hospital 
of  the  school,  but  that  certain  of  the  diseases  and  defects  of 
children  may  be  prevented  and  corrected. 

2.  Claim  Imposed  by  Psychical  Nature  and  Implications. 
— The  claim  registered  by  the  psychical  nature  of  the  child, 
in  view  more  especially  of  the  last  three  of  the  above 
principles,  is  that  the  school  be  so  organized  as  to  foster 
at  each  period  of  life  his  will  and  intellectual  develop- 
ment. 

The  imposition  of  this  claim  has  given  rise,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  the  question  of  the  character  of  school  life  and 
conduct,  which  we  will  discuss  later,  and  it  has  given  rise, 
on  the  other,  to  the  problem  which,  for  the  want  of  a 
better  term,  may  be  designated  the  statics  of  instruction. 
Belonging  to  the  statics  of  instruction  may  be  grouped 
questions  with  reference  to  the  length  of  the  course  of 


288      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

study,  standards  of  efficiency,  school  losses,  withdrawals, 
and  "repeaters,"  questions  of  gradation  and  classification, 
methods  of  promotion,  size  of  classes,  individual  or  class 
teaching,  slow  and  fast  grades,  instruction  by  grades  or 
departments. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  enter  into  a  detailed  study  of 
the  questions  arising  from  the  claim  imposed  upon  the 
organization  of  the  school  by  either  the  physical  or  psychical 
nature  of  the  child.  It  suffices  in  this  connection  if  the 
teacher  appreciates  the  source  of  these  problems  and  recog- 
nizes that  the  basis  and  test  of  their  solution  and  conse- 
quently of  the  final  organization  of  the  school  in  these 
respects  is  the  physical  and  pyschical  development  of  the 
child  as  conditioned  by  the  purposes  of  elementary 
education. 

§  4.  Instruction  as  a  Factor 

Instruction,  though  itself  a  means,  requires,  neverthe- 
less, on  its  part,  that  the  school  be  so  organized  as  to  make 
possible  the  teaching,  both  on  the  side  of  subject  matter 
and  of  method,  implied  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the 
elementary  school.  In  view  of  this  claim,  instruction 
enters  in  as  a  factor  in  conditioning  the  size  and  organiza- 
tion of  classes,  standards  of  class  order,  distribution  of 
time,  equipment  to  be  supplied,  and  even  into  condi- 
tioning the  construction  of  the  plant  itself.  By  reason 
thereof,  the  organization  of  a  reading  or  of  an  arithmetic 
class,  and  a  class  in  drawing,  experimental  science,  or 
hand-work  will  differ,  as  will  also  the  size  of  such  classes, 
standards  of  class  order,  and  equipment.  It  is  in  recogni- 
tion of  this  claim  that  one  room  of  a  modern  school 
building  is  a  recitation  room,  another  a  laboratory  or  a 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  289 

workshop,  and  still  another,  a  drawing  room.  _  A  school  may 
therefore  be  said,  from  this  point  of  view,  to  be  appropri- 
ately organized  when  that  diversity  of  classes  is  rendered 
possible,  that  diversity  of  materials  suppUed,  and  the 
school  plant  so  constructed  as  to  render  possible  the  giving^ 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  of  that  instruction 
requisite  to  the  accompUshment  of  the  aim  of  the  given 
school. 

§  5.  Society  as  a  Factor 

1.  The  Claim  Imposed.  —  Society  as  the  final  condi- 
tioning factor  requires,  in  view  more  especially  of  the 
first  of  the  above  principles,  that  the  school  be  so  organized 
that  both  the  spirit  dominating  it  and  the  principles  con- 
trolling behavior  within  it  are  typical  of  the  hfc  of  the 
larger  social  whole,  the  interests  of  which  are  to  be  conserved 
by  the  given  school. 

This  claim,  like  the  one  registered  by  the  physical  nature 
of  the  child,  has  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  been  ignored. 
But  with  increasing  insight  into  the  significance  of  learning 
through  living,  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent 
that  the  school  in  which  the  social  spirit  is  disregarded, 
in  which  no  provision  for  genuine  social  activity  is  made, 
in  which  no  opportunity  for  practicing  the  social  virtues 
or  of  living  socially  is  offered,  is  in  nowise  adapted  to  pre- 
pare the  child,  upon  leaving  it,  to  enter  into  the  larger 
social  Hfe  of  his  people  as  an  appreciative  and  active 
member. 

2.  Implications.  —  To  bring  into  the  elementary  school 
the  spirit  and  principles  of  social  hfe  impHes  making  it 
a  typical  social  institution,  creating  in  it  typical  social 
situations.     For  it  is  only  as  the  school  is  made  a  tj-pical 


290      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

social  institution  that  the  child  catches  the  social  spirit 
and  makes  this,  of  his  own  will,  the  dominant  temper  of  his 
life;  and  it  is  only  as  the  child  is  brought  to  meet  typical 
social  situations  that  he  is  able  to  understand  the  origin 
and  necessity  of  the  principles  of  the  larger  social  order, 
and  of  his  own  accord  to  adopt  these  as  the  guiding  prin- 
ciples of  his  conduct. 

The  making  of  hfe  within  the  elementary  school  typical 
of  the  highest  and  best  in  the  larger  life  outside  of  the 
school  implies  the  socialization  of  methods  of  instruction, 
the  socialization  of  the  recitation,  and  the  socialization  of 
school  conduct. 

The  socialization  of  methods  of  instruction  involves,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  development  of  a  social  motive  on  the 
part  of  the  child  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and,  on 
the  other,  the  giving  of  free  opportunity  to  him  to  use 
this  knowledge  in  cooperative  activity. 

The  motives  for  gaining  knowledge  under  present 
methods  are  exceedingly  individualistic.  Appeal  is  made 
to  personal  profit  and  advantage,  to  affection  for  the  teacher, 
to  fear,  pride,  emulation,  and  rivalry.  The  resulting  mo- 
tives are  not  wholly  bad,  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  they  are 
inadequate  for  the  purposes  of  genuine  education.  They 
are  external  and  too  often  break  down  with  a  change  of 
external  conditions.  Over  against  this  appeal  to  the 
individualistic  instincts  and  to  the  selfish  aspects  of  human 
nature,  methods  which  are  social  in  their  import  seek  to 
develop  in  the  child  a  desire  to  acquire  knowledge  because 
of  its  relation  to  the  work  of  his  class  or  to  the  life  of  the 
community  of  which  he  is  a  member;  they  seek  to  render 
motives  that  are  self-centered  subordinate  to  those  centered 
in  others,  to  render  motives  arising  from  a  desire  for  per- 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  291 

.  s(mal  advancement  subordinate  to  those  springing  from  a 
desire  for  the  betterment  of  the  social  whole. 

Present  methods  likewise  place  the  emphasis  upon  the 
use  of  knowledge  for  personal  ends  rather  than  upon  its 
use  in  mutual  aid.  The  fault  here  is  not  that  its  employment 
to  individual  profit  is  emphasized,  but  that  its  use  in  social 
service  is  not  deemed  of  as  great  importance.  Under  pres- 
ent methods,  in  so  far  as  opportunity  is  given,  the  child 
employs  his  knowledge  to  make  a  bow  and  arrow  for  him- 
self, to  gain  personal  insight  into  a  phenomenon  of  nature, 
a  piece  of  literature,  or  into  the  solution  of  a  class  of  prob- 
lems, but  little  or  no  place  is  made  for  the  social  applica- 
tion of  the  same.  Indeed,  so  thoroughly  indoctrinated  is 
the  school  in  the  thought  that  the  child  should  keep 
what  he  knows  to  himself  and  use  it  only  for  his  own 
advancement,  "that  for  one  child  to  help  another  in  his 
task  has  become  a  school  crime,  .  .  .  mutual  assistance, 
instead  of  being  the  most  natural  form  of  cooperation  and 
association,  becomes  a  clandestine  effort  to  relieve  one's 
neighbor  of  his  proper  duties."  The  normal  outcome  of 
this  is  a  spirit  of  selfishness.  In  contrast,  methods  that 
are  socialized  make  large  place  in  the  school  for  the 
employment  of  knowledge  in  mutual  aid,  in  cooperative  con- 
structions, creations,  or  productions,  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  which  each  is  encouraged  to  perform  his  part,  to 
make  his  contribution.  To  aid  others,  to  join  in  social 
enterprise  is  thus  made  a  personal  privilege  as  well  as  a 
school  duty,  and  the  use  of  knowledge  in  service  to  others, 
in  the  advancement  of  school  ends,  is  thereby  fostered. 

Giving  methods  social  import  has  its  influence  upon  the 
recitation,  but  the  socialization  of  the  recitation  involves, 
in  addition,  the  making  of  it  primarily  a  period  of  cooper- 


292      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ative  activity  in  the  attainment  of  definite  results,  in  the 
achievement  of  which  each  pupil  shares  in  the  contribu- 
tion of  every  other,  adds  his  own,  and  is  judged  in  the 
light  thereof. 

We  fail  to  recognize,  writes  Dewey,  how  individualistic 
in  spirit  the  present  recitation  is.  "Imagine  forty  children 
all  engaged  in  reading  the  same  books,  and  in  preparing 
and  reciting  the  same  lessons  day  after  day.  Suppose 
that  this  constitutes  by  far  the  larger  part  of  their  work, 
and  that  they  are  continually  judged  from  the  standpoint 
of  what  they  are  able  to  take  in  in  a  study  hour,  and  to 
reproduce  in  a  recitation  hour.  There  is  next  to  no  oppor- 
tunity here  for  any  social  or  moral  division  of  labor. 
There  is  no  opportunity  for  each  child  to  work  out  some- 
thing specifically  his  own,  which  he  may  contribute  to 
the  common  stock,  while  he,  in  turn,  participates  in  the 
productions  of  others.  All  are  set  to  do  exactly  the  same 
work  and  turn  out  the  same  results.  The  social  spirit  is 
not  cultivated  —  in  fact,  in  so  far  as  this  method  gets  in 
its  work,  it  gradually  atrophies  for  lack  of  use.  .  .  .  The 
child  is  born  with  a  natural  desire  to  give  out,  to  do,  and 
that  means  to  serve.  When  this  tendency  is  not  made  use 
of,  when  conditions  are  such  that  other  motives  are  sub- 
stituted, the  reaction  against  the  social  spirit  is  much  larger 
than  we  have  any  idea  of  — ■  especially  when  the  burden 
of  the  work,  week  after  week,  and  year  after  year,  falls 
upon  this  side.  But  lack  of  cultivation  of  the  social  spirit 
is  not  all.  Positively  individuaHstic  motives  and  standards 
are  cultivated.  .  .  .  Just  because  all  are  doing  the  same 
work,  and  are  judged  (both  in  recitation  and  in  examina- 
tion) with  reference  to  grading  and  to  promotion,  not  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  motives  or  the  ends  which  they  are 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  293 

trying  to  reach,  the  feeling  of  superiority  is  unduly  ap- 
pealed to.  The  children  are  judged  with  reference  to  their 
capacity  to  present  the  same  external  set  of  facts  and  ideas. 
As  a  consequence,  they  must  be  placed  in  the  hierarchy  on 
the  basis  of  this  purely  objective  standard.  .  .  .  The  child 
is  (thereby)  prematurely  launched  into  the  region  of  indi- 
vidualistic competition,  and  this  in  a  direction  where  compe- 
tition is  least  applicable,  viz.,  in  intellectual  and  spiritual 
matters,  whose  law  is  cooperation  and  participation." 

Over  against  this  is  the  recitation  which  is  social  in  its 
influence,  where  each  pupil  within  limits  has  his  particular 
contribution  to  make.  One  provides,  for  example,  certain 
illustrative  materials,  arranges  for  certain  experiments, 
another  brings  to  the  class  this  or  that  portion  of  the  re- 
view, another  makes  special  preparation  upon  this  or  that 
point  in  the  subject  under  consideration  and  presents  the 
same.  Or,  this  group  solves  and  explains  for  the  remainder 
of  the  class  these  problems,  that  group,  still  others.  Or,  this 
pupil  makes  this  part  of  a  given  whole,  that  one,  another, 
and  still  another,  a  third  part,  and  a  dam,  forest,  or  wigwam 
is  constructed.  Or,  this  child  is  the  big  bear,  that  one,  the 
mother  bear,  this  one,  the  little  bear,  a  final  one,  little 
Silver  Locks,  and  the  story  of  Silver  Locks  and  the  Three 
Bears  is  dramatized.  Thus,  in  a  hundred  ways  the  recita- 
tion may  be  made  into  a  period  of  cooperative  and  social 
creation,  production,  or  construction.  Individualistic  mo- 
tives are  thereby  overshadowed,  effort  becomes  character- 
istically social,  the  child  is  no  longer  judged  by  his  fellows 
and  his  teacher  by  what  he  has  personally  absorbed  and 
achieved,  —  an  individuahstic  standard,  — •  but  by  his 
motives,  by  the  quahty  of  the  work  done,  and  by  what  he 
has  contributed  to  the  common  purpose,  —  a  social  stand- 


294      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

ard,  —  and  he  is  not  only  thus  habituated  to  social  co- 
operation, but  there  is  developed  in  him  a  genuine  social 
spirit,  that  spirit  which  makes  one  alive  to  his  duties  to 
his  fellows  and  readily  disposed  to  join  with  others  in  the 
attainment  of  social  advantages. 

Though  the  socialization  of  methods  of  instruction  and 
of  the  recitation  has  its  effect  upon  school  behavior,  the 
complete  socialization  of  school  conduct  implies  making 
the  same  principles  basic  in  the  life  of  the  school  as  are 
basic  in  that  outside  of  it. 

Of  the  principles  fundamental  in  social  life  and  appli- 
cable to  the  Ufe  of  the  school,  the  first  to  be  cited  is  coopera- 
tion, the  essence  of  which  is  mutual  helpfulness.  Akin 
to  cooperation  are  regularity,  punctuality,  and  industry.^ 
That  these  are  minor  principles  of  social  action  is  appar- 
ent. Note  the  regularity  in  all  modes  of  individual  and 
public  activity,  witness  the  punctuality  required  of  all  in 
whatever  field  they  may  labor,  consider  the  industry 
imposed  upon  one  by  modern  conditions. 

Social  life  of  any  but  the  lowest  order  implies  a  second 
principle,  —  that  of  the  equality  of  persons.  This  prin- 
ciple is  especially  applicable  to  the  school,  as  it  manifests 
itself  in  uniform  and  general  modes  of  regarding  the  indi- 
vidual and  more  particularly  in  the  corollary,  —  polite- 
ness, —  that  is,  the  treatment  of  each  individual  with 
courtesy  without  regard  to  present  station,  condition,  or 
circumstances. 

Social  life  of  a  still  higher  order  implies  also  the  equahty 

^  It  is  important  at  this  point  to  keep  in  mind  the  distinction  between  a 
principle  of  action  and  the  virtue  resulting  from  conforming  life  thereto. 
This  is  at  times  diiBcult  to  do,  as  often  the  same  term  is  used  to  designate 
both  the  principle  and  the  derived  virtue. 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL  295 

ot  rights  and  of  opportunities.  This  principle  finds  ex- 
pression in  the  subordinate  ideas  of  the  right  to  property 
and  its  consequent  sacredness,  the  right  to  happiness,  and 
in  the  duty  of  honesty  and  of  truthfulness. 

In  social  hfe  of  the  highest  tynpe,  there  is  impHed,  in  addi- 
tion, the  supremacy  of  the  law.  Without  this  principle, 
there  can  be  no  equaHty  of  persons  or  of  opportunities, 
no  genuine  cooperation.  Companion  to  law  is  justice,  the 
rendering  to  each  according  to  his  rights  and  deeds,  and 
not  according  to  his  possibihties,  wishes,  or  unrealized 
aspirations. 

But  social  life  that  rests  upon  the  supremacy  of  the  law 
and  upon  absolute  justice  is  cold  and  heartless.  Conse- 
quently, above  and  beyond  the  supremacy  of  the  law  and 
of  absolute  justice,  there  is  essential  to  the  very  highest 
type  of  social  cooperation  the  principle  of  charity,  —  charity 
that  giveth  and  demandeth  not  in  return.  This  principle 
underlies  and  gives  color  to  our  whole  social  fabric  and 
finds  expression  in  personal  helpfulness  and  in  public 
institutions  of  philanthropy.  Related  thereto  are  s>Tn- 
pathy,  helpfulness,  liberality,  and  toleration. 

The  above  are,  in  the  main,  the  larger  principles  of  social 
life,  which  are  applicable,  and  which  in  their  particular 
national  expression  must  be  made  cardinal  in  the  life  of 
the  elementary  school,  if  school  conduct  is  to  be  socialized. 

In  doing  this,  they  cannot  be  imposed  upon  the  school 
from  without,  nor  should  they  be  presented  as  coming  from 
the  teacher,  or  as  depending  upon  or  vanishing  with  him, 
and,  above  all,  they  should  not  be  presented  as  belonging 
only  to  the  school.  For  in  making  them  basic  in  school 
Hfe,  the  child  must  be  brought  to  see  that  these  principles 
arise  out  of  the  nature  of  that  life  and  are  necessary  to  it; 


296      PRINCIPLES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 

he  must  be  brought  to  see  that  they  abide  though  the  teacher 
changes,  that  they  are  not  only  principles  of  school  conduct 
but  also  of  conduct  in  business,  the  home,  the  ''social 
circle,"  the  community,  the  state,  and  the  church;  he  must 
be  brought  to  understand  that  obedience  thereto  is  the 
condition  of  attaining  the  fullest  and  richest  individual 
experiences.  In  this  way  only  is  life  in  the  school  to  be 
\made  real  and  to  be  brought  into  relation  with  that  of 
the  social  whole;  in  this  way  only  will  the  child  come, 
through  the  school,  to  an  appreciation  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  Ufe,  and  to  an  appreciation  of  their  binding 
force  upon  his  conduct;  and,  finally,  in  this  way  only  will 
the  habits  acquired  in  the  school  be  habits  which  con- 
tribute to  personal  and  social  efl&ciency,  —  the  final  test 
of  education. 

Readings 

Shaw,  School  Hygiene,  pp.  1-156. 

Burrage  and  Bailey,  School  Sanitation  aiid  Decoration,  pp.  1-93. 

Rowe,  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child. 

Dresslar,  School  Hygiene. 

Terman,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 

O'Shea,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  pp.  246-273. 

Button,  Social  Phases  of  Education,  pp.  13-32. 

School  Management,  pp.  127-131,  175-184. 
Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  pp.  214-224. 
Dewey,  School  and  Society,  pp.  77-110,  27-30. 

Ethical  Principles  Underlying  Education,  pp.  15-18. 
Tompkins,  School  Management,  pp.  10-15,  196-218. 
Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  291-305. 
Strayer,  The  Teaching  Process,  pp.  129-138. 
King,  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  pp.  357-398. 
Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching,  pp.  132-148. 
Morehouse,  The  DiscipVme  of  the  School,  pp.  i-iog. 


INDEX 


Acquisitiveness,  an  instinct  related  to 
impulse  of  self-preservation,  57. 

Activity,  the  result  of  action  of  primal 
impulses,  71-72. 

Aim,  step  of  development  of  motive  and 
statement  of,  in  inductive  perceptual 
method  of  instruction,  209-212;  in 
inductive  conceptual  method,  21^ 
221;  in  deductive  perceptual  method, 
228-229;  in  deductive  conceptual 
method,  232-233;  desirability  of 
giving  the  pupil's  and  the  teacher's, 
in  a  lesson  plan,  242. 

Aim  of  education,  from  side  of  society, 
168-172;  from  side  of  individual, 
173-176;  unity  in,  176;  of  elementary 
education,  176-180;  means  for  realiz- 
ing, found  in  instruction  and  school 
organization,  182. 

Aim  of  society,  18-19;  and  social  ideals, 
19-20;  ideals  of  the  individual  and 
the,  21. 

Ambition,  an  instinct  related  to  im- 
pulse of  self-preservation,  57. 

Ancients,  social  meaning  of  education 
appreciated  by  the,  163. 

Appetite  of  the  senses,  the  first  mani- 
festation of  the  intellectual  impulse, 
64. 

Application  of  new  knowledge,  stage  of, 
in  inductive  perceptual  process  of 
learning,  140;  in  inductive  concep- 
tual process,  144;  in  deductive  per- 
ceptual process,  149;  in  deductive 
conceptual  process,  154. 

Arithmetic,  inductive  perceptual  les- 
son plan  in,  244-247;  deductive  per- 
ceptual lesson  plan,  256-259;  in- 
ductive conceptual  lesson  plan,  262- 
265. 

Art,  as  a  factor  in  social  development, 
H-12;  a  material  of  culture,  35. 


Artistic  impulse,  a  primal  impulse,  56; 
characteristics  of  the,  65-68. 

Artistic  phase  of  societary  life,  171. 

Aspects  of  psychical  life,  52-53. 

Assimilative  level  of  control,  78. 

Assimilative  process  of  learning,  99. 

Assimilative  stage,  of  will  development, 
94,  122;  of  development  of  the  in- 
tellect, 129. 

Attention,  power  of  sustained,  developed 
under  action  of  social  selection,  26. 

Bases  of  direction  and  control  of  im- 
pulses on  diflerent  levels,  77-81. 

Beauty,  appreciation  of,  identified  with 
the  artistic  impulse,  65. 

Birds,  force  of  primal  impulses  illus- 
trated by,  71. 

Bender,  quoted  on  instinctive  character 
of  religion,  69. 

Character,  defined,  122;  will  develop- 
ment and  development  of,  122-123; 
intellectual  development  and,  laj^ 
130. 

Child,  aspects  of  psychical  life  of  the, 
52-53;  impulse  of  sociality  in  the, 
62;  importance  of  trait  of  imitation, 
64-65 ;  comparatively  late  app>earance 
of  moral-religious  impulse,  70;  psy- 
chical development  of  the,  92  ff.;  de- 
termination of  elementary  school 
curriculum  by  the,  199-204;  guides 
in  adaptation  of  curriculum  to  the, 
201-202;  ways  in  which  curriculum 
is  determined  by  the,  202-20.1;  as  a 
factor  conditioning  organization  of 
the  elementary  school,  285-288. 

Cognitive  functions,  development  of, 
124-125;  relation  between  develop- 
ment of  content  and  development  of, 
125-137;   definition  of,  127-128;  uso 


ug? 


29$ 


INDEX 


and  development  of,  particular  and 
not  general,  128. 

Combativeness,  as  a  primitive  instinct 
of  man,  27-28;  impulse  of  self- 
preservation  at  basis  of,  57. 

Community  conditions,  determination 
of  elementary  school  curriculxmi  by, 
194-igg. 

Concepts,  class  and  particular,  11 2-1 13. 

Conceptual  level  of  control,  78;  the  in- 
tellect and  the  direction  of  impulse  on 
the,  79-81. 

Conceptual  processes  of  learning,  10&- 
iiS- 

Conceptual  stage  in  development  of 
the  intellect,  129. 

Conceptual  thought,  products  of,  80. 

Conceptual  will,  period  of  development 
of  the,  94;  distinctive  elements  in 
period  of  the,  95-96. 

Constructiveness,  an  instinct  related  to 
impulse  of  self-preservation,  57. 

Content,  presupposed  by  control  and 
direction  of  impulse,  120;  rests  upon 
the  learning  processes,  120-121;  de- 
velopment of,  123-124;  relation 
between  development  of,  and  devel- 
opment of  cognitive  functions,  125- 
127. 

Control,  the  intellect  the  mediimi  of, 
76-77;  four  levels  of,  77-78. 

Cooperative  life,  inclinations  to,  result- 
ing from  impulse  of  sociaUty,  62-63. 

Criminal  class,  viewed  as  outside  the 
limitations  of  social  ideals,  46-47. 

Culture,  materials  of,  34-36;  materials 
of,  as  materials  of  development,  36- 
37;  society  and  the  materials  of, 
37-40. 

Ciu-iosity,  an  early  manifestation  of  the 
intellectual  impulse,  64. 

Curriculum  of  elementary  school,  181  ff.; 
materials  of,  182-183;  factors  de- 
termining, 183;  determination  of,  by 
a  given  society  as  a  whole,  183-194; 
determination  of,  by  given  com- 
munity or  local  conditions,  194-199; 
determination  by  the  child,  199-202; 
ways  in  which  the  child  determines, 
202-204;  determination  of,  by  so- 
ciety versus  its  determination  by  the 
child,  205-207. 


Data,  stages  of  acquisition  and  elabora- 
tion of:  in  inductive  perceptual  pro- 
cess of  learning,  136-139;  in  induc- 
tive conceptual  process,  141-143;  in 
deductive  perceptual  process,  145- 
148;  in  deductive  conceptual  process, 
150-153- 

Deductive  conceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 110-113;  rise  of  need  and  of 
motive  in,  149-150;  acquisition  of 
data,  150-15 1 ;  recall  of  old  ideas, 
151-152;  elaboration  of  data,  152- 
153;  synthesis  and  inference,  153- 
154;  appUcation  or  use,  154. 

Deductive  conceptual  method  of  in- 
struction, 232-237. 

Deductive  perceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 102-104;  rise  of  need  and  of 
motive,  144-145;  acquisition  of  data, 
145-146;  recall  of  old  ideas,  146-147; 
elaboration  of  data,  147-148;  syn- 
thesis and  inference,  148-149;  appli- 
cation or  use,  149. 

Deductive  perceptual  method  of  in- 
struction, 228-232;  lesson  plans 
under,  256-262. 

Development,  capacity  for,  a  charac- 
teristic of  the  individual,  24  ;  de- 
pendent upon  materials  of  culture, 
33-34;  materials  of  culture  as  materi- 
als of,  36-37. 

Dewey,  Ethical  Principles  Underlying 
Education,  quoted,  124-125;  on  the 
social  significance  of  education,  165; 
on  education  as  the  fimdamental 
method  of  social  progress  and  reform, 
166. 

Direction  of  impulse,  the  intellect  the 
medium  of,  76-77;  four  levels  of, 
77-78. 


Economic  phase  of  society,  169. 

Education,  an  interest  of  both  the  in- 
dividual and  society,  49;  conditioned 
by  social  needs,  49-50;  how  the  high- 
est interests  of  the  individual  are  con- 
served by  a  socially  determined,  50; 
two  imiversally  applicable  principles 
of,  50-51;  conditioned,  to  an  extent, 
by  the  nature  of  the  individual's 
psychical  life,  52;  primary  conditions 


INDEX 


299 


for  formal,  supplied  by  the  intellec- 
tual impulse,  65;  conclusions  con- 
cerning, from  study  of  psychical 
nature  of  the  child,  89-go,  132-133; 
educational  principles  applicable  to 
fostering  and  determining  psychical 
development  of  the  child,  133-134; 
principles  applicable  in  view  of  na- 
ture of  the  learning  processes,  156- 
157;  meaning  of,  162  ff.;  meanmg 
from  side  of  society,  163-166;  mean- 
ing from  side  of  the  indi\'idual,  166- 
168;  relation  between  meaning  of, 
to  society  and  meaning  of,  to  the 
individual,  168;  aim  of,  from  side  of 
society,  168-172;  aim  from  side  of  the 
individual,  173-176;  aim  of  elemen- 
tar>',  176-180;  aim  of,  realized  through 
instruction  and  school  organization, 
182,  285-296:  use  of  lesson  plan  as  a 
means  of,  240-283.  See  also  Ele- 
mentary education. 
Egotism,  impulse  of  self-preservation  at 

basis  of,  57. 
Elaboration,  step  of:  in  inductive  per- 
ceptual method  of  instruction,  215- 
217;  in  inductive  conceptual  method 
of  instruction,  224-225;  in  deductive 
perceptual  method  of  instruction, 
230-231;  in  deductive  conceptual 
method  of  instruction,  234-236. 
Elementary    education,    meaning    and 

aim  of,  161  ff.,  176-180. 
Elementary     school,     curriculum     of, 
181  ff.;    determination  of  curriculum 
by  society,   183-109;    determination 
of  curriculum  by  the  child,  199-204; 
determination  of  curriculum  by  so- 
ciety versus  its  determination  by  the 
child,  205-207;    methods  of  instruc- 
tion, 208-239;   use  of  lesson  plan  in, 
240-283;  organization  of  the,  284  ff.; 
factors     conditioning     organization, 
285;   the  child  as  a  factor,  286-288; 
instruction    as    a    factor,    288-289; 
society  as  a  factor,  289-296. 
Elements  of  the  will,  the,  54-56;  char- 
acterization of,  56-70. 
Emulation,  an  instinct  related  to  im- 
pulse of  self-preservation,  57. 
Environment,  influence  of,  upon  the  in- 
dividual, 23-24,  40,  43-45;   function 


of  the  intellect,  in  freeing  the  indi- 
vidual from  his,  82. 
Ex]:)erience,  meaning  of,  96-97;  im- 
plied in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
97;  methods  of  getting,  97-98;  must 
be  given  value  if  knowledge  is  to  be 
gained,  99;  processes  through  which 
meaning  and  value  are  given  to,  or 
learning,  99-106. 

Fat-tors  in  social  development,  11-13; 
source  of  artificial  factors,  13-15. 

Falkenberg,  Uislory  of  Modern  Phi- 
losophy, quoted,  36. 

Feeling,  as  one  of  the  aspects  of  psychical 
life,  52-53- 

Fighting  instinct,  subduing  of,  an  illus- 
tration of  transformation  of  human 
nature  imder  action  of  social  selec- 
tion, 27-28. 

Frcebel,  quoted  on  aim  of  education, 
173- 

Galton,    Hereditary   Genius,   quotation 

from,  28-29. 
General  spirit,  a  material  of  culture,  35; 

what  is  signified  by,  35-36. 
Genius,  viewed  as  an  individual  above 

the  usual  limitations  of  social  ideals, 

46,  47. 
Geography,  inductive  perceptual  lesson 

plan   in   home,    252-256;    deductive 

conceptual  lesson  plan  in,  279-282. 
Grammar,  deductive  conceptual  lesson 

plan  in,  275-278. 
Green,  Prolegomena  la  Ethics,  quoted,  30. 
Gregariousness,  impulse  of  sociality  as 

manifested  by,  62. 
Group  instinct,  as  a  manifestation  of 

the  impulse  of  sociality,  62. 

Hxckel,  The  Evolution  of  Man,  quoted, 
60. 

Herbartians,  mistake  of,  in  making  in- 
terest an  end  of  instruction,  201-202. 

Heredity,  conditioning  of  his  nature  by, 
a  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  in- 
dividual, 23,  40-42;  function  of  the 
intellect  in  freeing  the  individual  from 
bond.-ige  to,  83. 

Hinsdale,  article  by,  quoted,  12S. 


300 


INDEX 


History,    inductive    conceptual    lesson 

plan  in,  271-275. 
Howerth,  on  the  societary  function  of 

education,  166. 
Humanistic  instinct,  impulse  of  sociality 

as  manifested  by  the,  62. 

Ideals,  social,  and  the  aim  of  society, 
19-20;  source  of  social,  in  the  superior 
individual,  20-21;  acceptance  of 
social,  by  the  individual,  45. 

Ideas,  capacity  to  learn  by,  one  of  the 
higher  powers  of  the  human  intel- 
lect, 6;  concrete,  as  the  basis  of  di- 
rection of  ilnpulse  upon  the  percep- 
tual level,  78-79;  recall  of  old,  in 
deductive  perceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 146-147 ;  recall  of  old,  in  deduct- 
ive conceptual  process  of  learning, 
1S1-152. 

Imitation,  as  a  manifestation  of  the  in- 
tellectual impulse,  64-65. 

Impulse,  direction  and  control  of,  78-80, 
118-120;  the  giving  of  content  to, 
116-118;  progressively  better  con- 
trol and  direction  of,  implied  by  will 
development,  1 20-1 21. 

Impulses,  as  elements  of  the  will,  54^55 ; 
distinguished  from  instincts,  55; 
primal,  are  forces  impelling  the  in- 
dividual to  activity,  71-72;  principal 
forms  or  phases  of  life  determined  by, 
72-73;  the  intellect  the  medium  for 
directing  and  controlling,  76-77; 
four  levels  of  direction  and  control, 
77-78;  knowledge  of,  at  each  period 
of  child  life  necessary  in  adaptation 
of  elementary  school  curriculum, 
200-201. 

Individual,  relation  of  the,  to  society 
and  its  development,  3,  5  £f.,  11  £f., 
23  £f.,  32;  how  existence  and  con- 
tinuation of  society  are  conditioned 
by  the,  lo-ii;  source  of  artificial 
factors  of  social  progress  found  in 
progressive  creativeness  of,  14;  the 
sole  agent  in  the  initiation  of  human 
progress,  15-16;  dependence  of  social 
progress  upon,  17-18;  the  agent  of 
social  perfection,  21-22;  three  notable 
characteristics  of,  23-24;  society  and 
inherited   attributes   of   the,    25-29; 


development  of,  dependent  upon  ma- 
terials of  culture,  33-34;  relation  of 
society  to  the  materials  of  culture 
and,  37-40;  development  of,  condi- 
tioned by  society,  40;  factors  deter- 
mining aim  of,  40;  life  of,  conditioned 
by  heredity,  40-42;  influence  of 
factor  of  psychical  environment,  43- 
45;  self-realization  the  aim  of,  45- 
47;  reciprocal  relation  between  so- 
ciety and,  48;  welfare  of,  the  inter- 
est of  society,  49;  highest  interests 
of,  are  conserved  by  education  so- 
cially determined,  50;  meaning  of 
education  from  side  of,  166-168; 
aim  of  education  from  side  of,  173- 
176. 

Inductive  conceptual  method  of  instruc- 
tion, 219-228;  lesson  plans  under, 
262-275. 

Inductive  conceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 106-109,  140;  rise  of  need  and  of 
motive,  140-141;  acquisition  of  data, 
141;  elaboration  of  data,  141-143; 
synthesis  and  inference,  143-144; 
application  or  use,  144. 

Inductive  perceptual  method  of  in- 
struction, 209-219;  lesson  plans 
under,  244-256. 

Inductive  perceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 99-102,  135  ff.;  rise  of  need  and 
of  motive,  135-136;  acquisition  of 
data,  136-137;  elaboration  of  data, 
137-139;  synthesis  and  inference, 
139-140;  application  or  use,  140. 

Industrial  phase  of  societary  life,  169. 

Inference.    See  Synthesis  and  inference. 

Instincts,  distinction  between  impulses 
and,  55;  that  are  found  among  dis- 
tinctive elements  in  period  of  the  per- 
ceptual will,  94;  found  in  period  of  the 
conceptual  will,  95-96;  understand- 
ing of  those  distinctive  of  each  period 
of  child  Ufe  necessary  in  adaptation 
of  elementary  school  curriculum,  200- 
201. 

Instruction,  aim  of  education  by  means 
of,  182;  methods  of  elementary 
school,  208  flF. ;  inductive  perceptual 
method,  209-210;  inductive  concepn 
tual  method,  219-228;  deductive 
perceptual  method,  228^-232;  deduct- 


INDEX 


301 


ive  conceptual  method,  232-237; 
methods  of,  abridged  and  unabridged, 
238-23Q;  use  of  lesson  pla;;3  in,  240- 
283;  as  a  factor  in  organization  of 
the  elementary  school,  288-289. 

Intellect,  higher  powers  of,  as  the  dis- 
tinguishing mark  of  man,  5;  self- 
consciousness  and  the  capacity  to 
learn  by  ideas  important  among  the 
higher  powers  of  the,  6;  social  life 
made  possible  by  higher  powers  of 
the  hmnan,  6-7 ;  the  motive  for  social 
life  supplied  by  the,  9-10;  the  seat 
of  the  artificial  factors  in  social  de- 
velopment, 13-14;  as  one  of  the  two 
main  aspects  of  the  psychical  Ufe  of 
the  child,  52-53;  meaning  of  the,  75- 
76;  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
intellectual  impulse,  76;  as  the  me- 
dium of  direction  and  control,  76-77; 
and  direction  and  control  of  impulse 
on  the  perceptual  level,  78-79;  and 
direction  and  control  of  impulse  on 
the  conceptual  level,  79-81;  function 
of,  to  enable  life  to  give  expression 
and  determination  to  itself,  Si-82; 
significance  of  the,  for  life,  82-83; 
a  servant  of  the  will,  83-84;  place  of 
the,  in  the  life  of  the  individual,  84- 
85;  identity  of  fimction  of,  and  of 
function  of  knowledge,  87-88;  devel- 
opment of,  and  secondary  work  of 
education,  90;  second  of  factors  in 
psychical  nature  of  the  child  to  de- 
velop, 92;  acquisition  of  knowledge 
and  development  of  the,  123  ff.; 
stages  in  development  of  the,  129; 
development  of,  and  character,  129- 
130;  development  of,  and  the  will, 
130-13 1 ;  aim  of  education  in  regard 
to  development  of  the,  175-176;  ad- 
justment of  elementary  school  cur- 
riculimi  to  the,  199-201. 

Intellectual  bond  a  necessity  to  social 
life  among  men,  8. 

Intellectual  impulse,  a  primal  impulse, 
56;  characteristics  of  the,  63-65;  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  intellect,  76. 

Intellectual  phase  of  societary  life,  1 70- 
171. 

Interest,  as  a  guide  in  adaptation  of 
curriculum  to  life  of  child,  201-202. 


James,    William,    works    by,    quoted, 

6s,  69,  70,  83. 
Judgment,  the  will  and,  84. 
Justice,  sense  of,  necessary  to  social  life, 

6-8. 

Kant,  quoted  on  aim  of  education,  173. 

Knowledge,  the  determination  of,  85- 
86;  function  of,  to  serve  the  purposes 
of  life,  86-87;  identity  of  function  of, 
with  the  function  of  the  intellect  when 
viewed  as  the  instrument  of  direction 
and  control,  87-88;  place  of,  in  life, 
as  the  means  to  the  expression  and 
actualization  of  life,  88;  process  of 
acquiring  and  using,  96  B. ;  defined 
as  experience  given  meaning  and 
value,  97;  implications  of  acquisition 
of,  or  learning,  97-99;  relation  be- 
tween acquisition  and  use  of,  and  the 
development  of  the  will,  116  £f.; 
acquisition  of,  and  development  of 
the  intellect,  123  ff. 

Learning,  the  process  through  which  ex- 
perience is  acquired  and  worked  over 
into  knowledge,  97;  implications  of, 
97~99;  four  processes  of,  99,  135  ff.; 
inductive  pxjrceptual  process,  99-102, 
135-140;  deductive  perceptual  pro- 
cess, 102-104,  144-149;  relation  be- 
tween processes  of  perceptual,  104- 
105;  products  and  results  of  percep- 
tual process,  105-106;  inductive  con- 
ceptual process,  106-109,  140-144; 
deductive  conceptual  process,  iio- 
113,  149-154;  relation  between 
processes  of  conceptual,  113-114; 
products  and  results  of  conceptual 
process,  114-115;  the  processes  of, 
and  psychical  development,  115;  im- 
pulse given  to  content  through  pro- 
cesses of,  116-117;  control  and  direc- 
tion of  impulse  implies  only  processes 
involved  in,  120;  processes  of, 
abridged  and  unabridged,  155;  range 
and  period  of  operation  of  processes, 
I5S~'S6;  educational  principles  ap- 
plicable, in  view  of  nature  of  processes 
of,  156-157. 

Lesson  plans,  meaning  and  kinds  of, 
240;  characteristic  of  good,  241-243; 


362 


INDEX 


necessity  for,  243;  question  of  plan- 
ning for  thought-wholes  or  for  single 
lessons,  243-244;  illustrative  induct- 
ive perceptual,  244-256;  deductive 
perceptual,  256-262;  inductive  con- 
ceptual, 262-264;  deductive  concep- 
tual, 275-282;  abridged  and  un- 
abridged, 282-283. 

Life,  the  will  and,  72-75;  relation  of 
the  intellect  to,  75-76;  significance  of 
the  intellect  for,  82-83;  place  of  the 
intellect  in  the  individual's,  84-85; 
knowledge  the  means  to  the  expres- 
sion and  actualization  of,  88. 

Literature,  as  a  factor  in  social  develop- 
ment, 11-12;    a  material  of  culture, 

as- 
Local  conditions,  determination  of  ele- 
mentary school  curriculum  by,  194- 
IQ9. 

Man,  higher  intellectual  powers  the  dis- 
tinguishing mark  of,  5;  motive  for 
social  life  supplied  to,  by  the  intel- 
lect, 9-10;  meaning  and  source  of 
the  imalienable  rights  of,  29-33;  ef- 
fects of  impulse  of  sociality  in,  60-63. 

Marshall,  Instinct  and  Reason,  quoted, 
69. 

Materials  of  culture.    See  Culture. 

Memory,  control  of,  by  the  will,  84. 

Mental  content,  development  of,  123- 
124. 

Mental  development,  law  of,  128-129. 

Method,  importance  of  provision  for  a, 
in  a  lesson  plan,  241. 

Methods  of  elementary  school  instruc- 
tion, 208-239. 

Morality,  instinctive  character  of,  68. 

Moral-religious  impulse,  a  primal  im- 
pulse, 56;  characteristics  of  the,  68- 
70. 

Moral-religious  phase  of  societary  life, 
172. 

Morgan,  Psychology  for  Teachers, 
quoted,  96-97. 

Motive,  step  of  rise  of,  in  inductive  per- 
ceptual process  of  learning,  135-136; 
in  inductive  conceptual  process  of 
learning,  140-141;  in  deductive  per- 
ceptual process  of  learning,  144-145; 
in  deductive  couceptual  process  of 


learning,  149-150;  step  of  develop- 
ment of,  in  inductive  perceptual 
method  of  instruction,  210-212;  in 
inductive  conceptual  method  of  in- 
struction, 219-221;  in  deductive  per- 
ceptual method  of  instruction,  228- 
229;  in  deductive  conceptual  method 
of  instruction,  232-233. 

Natural  science,  as  a  factor  in  social  de- 
velopment, 11-12;  a  material  of  cul- 
ture, 35. 

Need,  origin  in  a,  of  process  of  inductive 
perceptual  learning,  135-136;  step 
of  rise  of,  in  inductive  conceptual 
process  of  learning,  140-141;  in  de- 
ductive perceptual  process  of  learn- 
ing, 145-146;  in  deductive  conceptual 
process  of  learning,  149-150. 

Number,  primary,  illustrative  inductive 
perceptual  lesson  plan  in,  244-247; 
deductive  perceptual  lesson  plan, 
256-259. 

Organization  of  the  elementary  school, 
284  ff.;  factors  conditioning,  285;  the 
child  as  a  factor,  2S6-288;  instruc- 
tion as  a  factor,  288-289;  society  as 
a  factor,  289-296. 

Orientals,  social  meaning  of  education 
the  only  meaning  understood  by,  163. 

Paulsen,  Introduction  to  Philosophy, 
quoted,  73,  75,  85. 

Perception,  control  of,  by  the  will,  84. 

Perceptual  learning,  relation  between 
processes  of,  104-105;  products  and 
results  of  process  of,  105-106. 

Perceptual  level  of  control,  78;  the  in- 
tellect and  direction  of  impulse  on  the, 
78-79. 

Perceptual  process  of  learning,  99. 

Perceptual  stage,  of  will  development, 
94-95,  122;  in  development  of  the 
intellect,  129. 

Perez,  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood, 
quoted,  68. 

Pestalozzi,  quoted  on  aim  of  education, 

173- 
Presentation,  step  of:  in  inductive  per- 
ceptual method  of  instruction,   213- 
215;  in  inductive  conceptual  method 


INDEX 


303 


of  instruction,  222-224;  in  deductive 
perceptual  method  of  instruction, 
229-230;  in  deductive  conceptual 
method  of  instruction,  233-234. 

Primal  characteristics  of  the  will,  70-72. 

Primal  impulses,  what  constitute,  55- 
56;  forces  which  impel  the  individual 
to  activity,  71-72;  principal  forms 
or  phases  of  life  determined  by,  72- 
73- 

Primary  work,  inductive  perceptual 
lesson  plans  in,  244-252,  256-262. 

Processes  of  learning,  gg-iob,  135-154; 
abridged  and  unabridged,  155;  range 
and  period  of  operation,  155;  educa- 
tional principles  applicable,  in  view 
of  nature  of,  156-157. 

Psychical  development  of  the  child,  32- 
33,  92  ff.;  periods  in,  93-96;  process 
of,  96-115;  the  processes  of  learning 
and,  115;  unity  in  process  of,  131; 
educational  inferences,  132-133;  edu- 
cational principles,  133-134. 

Psychical  environment,  the  individual 
as  disposed  by,  43-45. 

Psychical  life,  education  conditioned  by 
the  nature  of  the  individual's,  52; 
two  aspects  of  the  child's,  are  that  of 
the  intellect  and  that  of  the  will,  52- 
53;  educational  inferences  and  prin- 
ciples from  study  of  child's,  89-90. 

Question  and  answer,  method  of,  in 
step  of  elaboration  in  the  inductive 
perceptual  method  of  instruction, 
215-217;  in  the  inductive  concepn 
tual  method  of  instruction,  224-225. 

Race-preservation,  a  primal  impulse, 
56;  characterization  of  impulse  of, 
5&-60. 

Reading,  inductive  perceptual  lesson 
plan  in  primary,  248-252;  inductive 
conceptual  lesson  plan,  266-270. 

Reason,  control  of,  by  the  will,  84. 

Reasoning,  power  of,  an  illustration  of 
transformation  of  human  nature 
under  action  of  social  selection,  26-27. 

Recall,  step  of:  in  inductive  perceptual 
method  of  instruction,  212-213;  in 
inductive  conceptual  method,  221- 
222;  in  deductive  perceptual  method. 


230;  in  deductive  conceptual  method, 
234- 

Religion,  as  a  factor  in  social  develop- 
ment, 11-12;  a  material  of  culture, 
35;  connection  between  sex-instinct 
and,  60;  instinctive  character  of, 
6S-69. 

Rivalry,  an  instinct  related  to  impulse 
of  self-preservation,  57. 

School.     See  Elementary  school. 

School  organization,  aim  of  education 
realized  by  means  of  instruction  and, 
182.     See  Organization. 

Schopenhauer,  Fourfold  Root  and  Will  in 
Nature,  quoted,  75. 

Schurman,  article  by,  quoted,  129. 

Sciences,  studies  of  elementary  school 
not  to  be  regarded  as,  1 86- 187. 

Self-consciousness,  one  of  the  higher 
powers  of  the  human  intellect,  6. 

Self-development,  function  of  the  intel- 
lect regarding  the  indiN-idual's,  81-82. 

Selfishness,  an  instinct  related  to  im- 
pulse of  self-preservation,  57. 

Self-preservation,  a  primal  impulse,  55; 
characterization  of  impulse  of,  56- 
58;  sociological  import,  58. 

Self-realization,  seeking  after  the  high- 
est, a  characteristic  of  the  individual, 
24,  45-47;  degree  attainable  by  the 
individual,  47-48. 

Senses,  satisfaction  of,  the  6rst  mani- 
festation of  the  intellectual  impulse, 
64. 

Sex-instinct,  significance  of  the,  58-60. 

Social  development,  1 1  ff.     See  Society. 

Socialistic  instinct,  impulse  of  sociality 
as  manifested  by  the,  62. 

Sociality,  element  of,  necessary  to  exist- 
ence of  society,  6-8;.  viewed  as  a 
primal  impulse,  56;  characteristics  of, 
60-63. 

Social  phase  of  societary  life,  169-170. 

Social  progress,  dependence  of,  upon 
individuals,  17-18. 

Social  science,  as  a  factor  in  social  de- 
velopment, 11-12;  a  materia!  of 
culture,  35. 

Society,  defined,  3;  charactcri.stics  as 
a  psychical  organization,  4;  end  or 
purpose  of,  4-5 ;  dependence  of  exist- 


304 


INDEX 


ence  of,  upon  higher  powers  of  the 
human  intellect,  6-7;  intellectual 
bond  among  men  necessary  to,  8; 
the  individual  and  the  development 
of,  II  S.,  15-16;  meaning  of  develof)- 
ment  of,  11;  natural  and  artificial 
factors  in  development  of,  11-13; 
source  of  artificial  factors,  13-iS; 
the  individual  as  the  agent  of  develop- 
ment of,  15-16;  human  welfare  the 
test  of  development  of,  16-17;  the 
aim  of,  to  meet  the  needs  of  its  mem- 
bers and  to  foster  individual  develop- 
ment, 18-19;  the  aim  of,  and  social 
ideals,  19-20;  source  of  ideals  of, 
found  in  superior  individuals,  20-21; 
ideals  of  the  individual  and  the  aim 
of,  21;  the  individual  the  agent  of 
perfection  of,  21-22;  discussion  of 
relation  of,  to  the  individual,  23  ff.; 
and  the  inherited  attributes  of  the 
individual,  25-29;  and  the  Uving  of 
human  life,  29-32;  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  individual,  32-40;  and 
the  aim  of  the  individual,  40-48; 
reciprocal  relation  between  the  indi- 
vidual and,  48;  welfare  of,  the  inter- 
est of  the  individual,  49;  interrela- 
tion of  education  and,  4Q-51;  form 
and  structure  of,  conditioned  to  a 
degree  by  impulse  of  self-preserva- 
tion, 58;  function  of  the  artistic  im- 
pulse in,  67-68;  attainment  of  an 
idea  of,  with  power  of  conceptual 
thinking,  80;  meaning  of  education 
from  side  of,  163-166;  aim  of  educa- 
tion from  side  of,  168-172;  deter- 
mination of  elementary  school  cur- 
riculum by,  183-199;  as  a  factor  in 
organization  of  the  elementary  school, 
289-296. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  quoted  on  the  intel- 
lect, 76;    on  function  of  education, 

173- 

Starbuck,  Psychology  and  Religion, 
cited,  70. 

Stephen,  Science  of  Ethics,  quoted,  68. 

Studies.     See  Curriculiun. 

Subject  matter,  separation  of,  from 
method  followed  in  teachuig  the  les- 
son, 241-242. 

Sustained    attention,    development   of 


power  of,  tm5er  action  6f  social  selec- 
tion, 26. 

Sutherland,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the 
Moral  Instinct,  quoted,  68. 

Sympathy,  part  played  by,  in  making 
social  life  possible,  6-8. 

Synthesis  and  inference,  step  of,  in  in- 
ductive perceptual  process  of  learning, 
139-140;  in  inductive  conceptual 
process,  143-144;  in  deductive  per- 
ceptual process,  148-149;  in  deduct- 
ive conceptual  process,  153-154; 
in  inductive  perceptual  method  of 
instruction,  217-218;  in  inductive 
conceptual  method,  225-226;  in 
deductive  perceptual  method,  231; 
in  deductive  conceptual  method,  236- 

237- 
Systematic  level  of  control,  78. 
Systematic  stage,  of  will  development, 

122;  Ln  development  of  the  intellect, 

129. 

Test  of  social  development  found  in 
human  welfare,  16-17. 

Thought,  power  of,  an  illustration  of 
transformation  of  human  nature  un- 
der action  of  social  selection,  26-27; 
appearance  of  power  of,  on  conceptual 
level  of  self-conscious  life,  79-80. 

Thought-wholes  of  instruction,  method 
of  deahng  with,  in  lesson  plan,  243- 
244. 

Truth,  love  of:  the  highest  form  of  the 
intellectual  impulse,  63;  is  akin  to 
curiosity,  64. 

Unalienable  rights  of  man,  meaning  and 
source  of  the,  29-32. 

Use  of  newly  acquired  knowledge,  stage 
of:  in  inductive  perceptual  process  of 
learning,  140;  in  inductive  concep- 
tual process,  144;  in  deductive  per- 
ceptual process,  149;  in  deductive 
conceptual  process,  154. 

Verification  and  use,  step  of:  m  induct- 
ive perceptual  method  of  instruc- 
tion, 218-219;  in  inductive  concep- 
tual method,  227-228;  in  deductive 
perceptual  method,  231-232;  in  de- 
ductive conceptual  method,  237. 


INDEX 


305 


Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology,  quoted,  166. 

Will,  the,  as  one  of  the  two  main  aspects 
of  the  psychical  hfe  of  the  child,  52- 
53;  meaning  of,  54;  elements  of, 
54-56;  characterization  of  elements 
of,  56-70;  primary  characteristics  of, 
70-72;  relation  of,  to  life,  72-74; 
place  of,  in  hfe,  74-75;  the  intellect 
a  servant  of,  83-84;  development  of, 
and  primary  work  of  education,  89- 
90;  first  of  factors  in  psychical  nature 
of  the  child  to  develop,  92;  periods 
in  development  of,  93-94;  and  men- 


tal elements  of  different  periods,  94- 
96;  relation  between  acquisition  and 
use  of  knowledge  and  development  of, 
116  £f.;  process  of  development  of, 
120-121;  law  of  development  of,  I J I- 
122;  development  of,  and  character 
development,  122-123;  and  intellec- 
tual development,  130-131;  adjust- 
ment of  elementary  school  curriculum 
to,  199-201. 
Work,  predisposition  to,  an  illustration 
of  transformation  of  human  nature 
under  action  of  sociaJ  selection,  28-29. 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


THE  COMMUNITY  AND  THE  CITIZEN 
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